Cellular Energetics

• Enzymes are macromolecules.
• Most enzymes are proteins.
• Hemoglobin F or Fetal hemoglobin enables efficient transfer of oxygen from the blood of the mother to the developing fetus.
• Tertiary shape must be maintained for functionality.
• Enzymes have a region called an active site.
• The active site of an enzyme interacts with the substrate.
• A molecule that can interact with an enzyme is called a substrate.
• Enzymes have an active site, specifically that interacts with substrates.
• Enzymes have a unique shape and size.
• Enzymes can have chemical charge(s) or not.
• Physical and chemical properties of the substrate must be compatible.
• Slight changes can occur to align with the substrate.
• Enzyme names often indicate the substrate or chemical involved.
• Enzyme names often end in -ase.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts, typically proteins, that speed up biochemical reactions.
• Enzyme structure is very specific resulting in each enzyme only facilitating one type of reaction.
• Enzymes can facilitate synthesis or digestion reactions.
• Enzymes affect the rate of biological reactions.
• All biochemical reactions require initial starting energy, called activation energy.
• Some reactions result in a net release of energy and some reactions result in a net absorption of energy.
• When electrons are transferred between molecules in a reaction, they pass through the electron transport chain.
• The Calvin cycle uses ATP, NADPH, and CO, and produces carbohydrates.
• ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates ATP when protons pass through the enzyme.
• Plants and other organisms mainly get their carbon dioxide from the environment.
• The energy captured in the light powers the production of carbohydrates in the Calvin cycle.
• An electrochemical/proton gradient is a difference in concentration of protons (Hydrogen ions) across a membrane.
• The ultimate goal of the Calvin cycle reactions is to make organic products that plants need using the products from the light reactions of photosynthesis.
• Chlorophylls capture energy from sunlight and convert it to high-energy electrons.
• The hydrolysis of water is necessary as it relates to PSIl and the light-dependent reactions because the hydrogen molecules from the splitting of water are released into the thylakoid space and used to create an electrochemical/proton gradient.
• Photosystems I and Photosystems II are functionally related to the electron transport chain (ETC) because they pass high-energy electrons to the ETC.
• Photosystems I and II are embedded in the internal membranes of chloroplasts.
• Photosynthesis uses a form of passive transport to generate ATP and ADP.
• A photosystem is a light-capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane.
• The formation of the proton gradient is linked to the synthesis of ATP.
• Electrons energized by chlorophylls will be used to establish a proton gradient and reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
• Typically reactions resulting in a net release of energy require less activation energy compared to reactions resulting in net absorption of energy.
• Enzymes lower the activation energy requirement of all enzyme-mediated reactions, accelerating the rate of reactions.
• A controlled experiment is a scientific investigation.
• Control test (group) in a controlled experiment generates data under conditions with no treatment/no manipulation.
• Experimental test (group) in a controlled experiment generates data under abnormal/unknown conditions.