Essay Plans

• Discuss the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia and issues with reliability and validity.

  Diagnosis - DSM-5 requirements, ICD-10 requirements

  Classification - outline of a positive and negative symptom

  Reliability and validity- inter-rater, test retest, Osorio et al (2019)

  Validity - criterion, Cheniaux et al (2009)

  Comorbidity - Buckley et al

  Symptom overlap - Ellasson & Ross

  Gender bias - Fishcer & Buchanan

  Culture bias - Pinto & Jones
• Discuss the genetic explanation for schizophrenia.

  AO1: Family studies (Gottesman 1991), adoption studies (Tienari et al 2000), candidate genes, polygenic (Ripke 2014), aetiologically heterogeneous

  AO3: Strong evidence base (Hilker et al), ignores environmental factors (Di Forti et al, Morkved et al), genetic counselling
• Discuss the neural correlates explanation for schizophrenia.

  AO1: Chlorpromazine dopamine link, original dopamine hypothesis, amphetamines and antipsychotics, updated dopamine hypothesis (Davis et al 1991), white matter (Du et al 2013)

  AO3: Research support: Leucht et al (2013), Patel et al (2013)

  Contradictory evidence: (Noll 2009)

  Alternative neurotransmitters: (McCutcheon et al 2020)
• Discuss biological treatments for schizophrenia.

  AO1: Typical antipsychotics and side effects, atypical antipsychotics, clozapine and risperidone, differences between them

  AO3: Research support (Thornley et al 2003), Meltzer (2013)

  Exaggerated evidence: Healy (2012)

  Serious side effects: tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome

  Unclear mechanisms
• Discuss the family dysfunction explanation to schizophrenia.

  AO1: Schizophrenogenic mother (Mednick 1984), double bind theory (Berger 1968), expressed emotion EE

  AO3: Research support (Morkved et al, Read et al), poor evidence, socially sensitive, reductionist
• Discuss family therapy as a treatment for schizophrenia.

  AO1: Pharaoh et al's main strategies, Burbach 2019's family therapy model

  AO3: Evidence for effectiveness (McFarlane 2016), benefits for whole family (Lobban et al), evidence for ineffectiveness (Garety et al 2008)
• Discuss the cognitive explanation for schizophrenia.

  AO1: Dysfunctional thought processing, egocentric bias, metarepresentation bias, central control dysfunction, auditory/selective attention

  AO3: Research support (Stirling et al 2006), proximal origins, contradictory evidence, poor causality
• Discuss CBTp as a cognitive treatment for schizophrenia.

  AO1: aims and strategies, cognitive and behavioural

  AO3: Research support (NICE 2014 review), lack of availability (Freeman et al 2013), overstated benefits (Jauhar et al 2014 meta analysis), conflicting recommendations
• Discuss token economies in the management of schizophrenia.

  AO1: Theoretical understanding, primary and secondary reinforcers, (Ayllon and Azrin 1968) rationale for TEPs (Matson et al 2016, Cooper et al 2007)

  AO3: Evidence for effectiveness (Dickerson et al 2005), ethical issues, alternative approach (Chiang et al 2019)
• Discuss the interactionist approach to schizophrenia.

  AO1: Meehl (1962)'s original diathesis-stress model, modern diathesis-stress model (Ripke 2014, Read et al 2001), Tienari 2004 key study

  AO3: Research support (Tarrier et al 2004, Tienari et al 2004, Houston et al 2008), poor causality (Jarvis and Okami 2019), neural vulnerability (Verdoux et al 1998)