The difficulties of a female ruler

• Elizabeth's problems - succession

  • If Elizabeth died without an heir, her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, would take her throne, a prospect which many Englishmen were not fond of
  • Therefore, many were eager for Elizabeth to marry and give birth to a Protestant heir
• Elizabeth's problems - religion

  • Elizabeth's father had broken from the Catholic Church in order to obtain a divorce, and Edward continued to establish the Protestant faith but when Mary came to the throne, she tried to re-establish Catholicism
  • Elizabeth was a Protestant, but attempted to appease Catholics by allowing them to follow their faith privately
  • However, many Catholics remained unhappy, believing she had no right to be queen as they did not recognise Henry VIII's second marriage
  • The growing popularity of Puritanism, an extreme version of Protestantism, was also a threat
• Elizabeth's problems - foreign policy

  • Elizabeth had to deal with powerful countries that wanted influence over England
  • France and Spain, which were both Catholic and had the support of the Pope, saw Protestant England as a target
  • One major area of disagreement was the Netherlands, which had a mainly Protestant population that was in conflict with the Catholic Spanish who ruled the area
• Elizabeth's problems - taxation

  • The government needed money and one of the few ways to get it was through taxes
  • Unfortunately, at a time of great poverty, taxes would be very unpopular with the people of England, and so raising taxes would be very dangerous for a new monarch
• Elizabeth's problems - Ireland

  • Like her predecessors, Elizabeth considered herself to be Queen of Ireland
  • Unfortunately, many Irish people disagreed
  • There was a revolt in northern Ireland in 1559, the first of several during her reign
  • She spent thousands of pounds and sent many of her best soldiers to try to limit Irish rebellion, but nothing seemed to work in the long term
• Elizabeth's problems - Mary, Queen of Scots

  • Without a direct heir, the next in line to the throne was Elizabeth's Catholic cousin Mary
  • In 1568, Mary was exiled from Scotland to England and became a real threat to Elizabeth's rule
  • Catholics now had an alternative queen to fight for
• Why was marriage so important?

  • Marriage at the time was less about love and more about political deals between families and nations
  • As queen, Elizabeth's choice of marriage could have a huge impact on England
  • Additionally, at the time it was believed that the husband took priority over the wife, so if Elizabeth married, she would be expected to obey her husband
• What were arguments for Elizabeth's marriage?

  • Marriage could create an alliance with a foreign country or win the support of a powerful English family
  • By marrying, Elizabeth could produce an heir to succeed her and continue the Tudor line
  • Marriage and children would prevent Mary, Queen of Scots, from ruling England after Elizabeth's death
• What were arguments against Elizabeth's marriage?

  • Marrying a foreign prince or king could lead to England falling under their control
  • Marrying an Englishman could create problems over who had authority
  • Remaining unmarried meant that Elizabeth kept her independence, and she likely did not want to be answerable to her husband
  • Giving birth was risky for women at this time, often resulting in the death of the mother
  • Her sister Mary's marriage to King Philip of Spain was widely seen as a disaster
• Potential husband - Robert Dudley

  • Earl of Leicester
  • The queen's childhood friend and one of her favourites throughout her reign, many assumed they would marry
  • He was a key figure in the royal court, and had great power and influence as a Privy Councillor
  • When his wife died under suspicious circumstances, where he was widely believed to have killed her, the scandal of her death meant that marriage became almost impossible
• Potential husband - Francis

  • Duke of Anjou and Alencon, the French king's brother
  • Marriage with Francis could lead to influence in France, and as his brother was childless, Francis was also heir to the throne
  • However, by the time their marriage was considered, Elizabeth was 46 and most assumed she was beyond having childreen
  • If she died childless while married to the French heir, England could fall under French control
  • For this reason, and the fact that Francis was a Catholic, he was an unpopular choice
• Potential husband - King Philip

  • King Philip II of Spain
  • One of the most powerful men in the world, as well as one of the wealthiest - Spain's control of South America and its resources had made the country very rich
  • Philip was Elizabeth's brother-in-law, having married her sister Queen Mary I
  • Philip was a Catholic and Elizabeth was a Protestant, meaning they had a religious barrier
• Parliament as matchmakers


  • After Elizabeth almost died of smallpox in 1562, Parliament became increasingly concerned about the lack of an heir
  • Elizabeth was almost 30 at the time, and her likelihood of producing an heir was getting smaller
  • By 1566, Parliament began to openly discuss potential matches, which infuriated Elizabeth
  • She banned Parliament from ever discussing it again, as she believed it to be a personal matter that was for only her to consider
• Who was the Duke of Norfolk?

  • The queen's second cousin and a leading English nobleman
  • He was raised as a Protestant despite being from a Catholic family, which led many people to distrust him because of his background
  • He was made Lord Lieutenant of the North
• Who was the Earl of Northumberland?

  • His father was executed for leading a rebellion against Henry VIII
  • He was not allowed to inherit his father's title until the reign of Mary I
  • He was a Catholic but was treated well by Elizabeth
• Who was the Earl of Westmorland?

  • A Catholic who had become powerful under Mary I's rule
  • He lost influence when Elizabeth was crowned
  • He remained powerful in the north
  • His wife was a member of the powerful Howard family, to which three of Henry VIII's wives had ties
• Who was Roberto Ridolfi?

  • An Italian banker who travelled widely across Europe
  • It is believed that he sent money to support Catholic rebels in England
  • It is likely that he worked as a spy for the Pope for many years
• What started the Northern Rebellion, 1569?

  • Despite the official religious changes, many people in northern England retained their Catholic beliefs and there was support for the idea of Mary, Queen of Scots, replacing Elizabeth on the throne
  • Even loyal northerners questioned Elizabeth's right to rule, and Elizabeth kept Mary under close watch to prevent a possible rebellion
  • She stopped Mary from marrying the Duke of Norfolk, who then left the royal court without permission and headed north
• What happened during the Northern Rebellion, 1569?

  • Taking Norfolk's actions as a sign, a group of northern lords led by Westmorland and Northumberland began a rebellion agianst Elizabeth
  • They took control of Durham Cathedral and celebrated an illegal Catholic mass
  • They the began a march south with around 4,600 men
• How did Elizabeth solve the Northern Rebellion, 1569?

  • Initially, Elizabeth struggled to gather an army to resist them
  • Eventually one of her loyal lords, the Earl of Sussex, raised an army and the rebels disbanded
  • The leaders of the rebellion fled to Scotland where Northumberland was quickly captured and executed
  • Westmorland escaped to France, where he lived until he died in poverty
• What started the Ridolfi Plot, 1571?

  • Norfolk spent ten months in the Tower of London but was eventually released and kept under house arrest
  • He quickly became involved in another plot, led by Roberto Ridolfi, who had seen the Northern Rebellion fail, and felt that foreign support was needed
  • As a banker, Ridolfi was able to travel freely across Europe building support
• What was the plan for the Ridolfi plot, 1571?

  • The plan was for the Netherlands to invade England at the same time as another northern rebellion
  • Elizabeth would be murdered and replaced by Mary, Queen of Scots, who would then marry Norfolk
• How did Elizabeth discover the Ridolfi rebellion?

  • Her network of spies discovered a bag of gold coins with coded letters on its way north
  • The code was cracked when the cipher key was discovered under a doormat at Norfolk's house
  • Norfolk confessed to his involvement and was executed in 1572
• When was the Northern Rebellion?

  1569
• When was the Ridolfi Plot?

  1571
• Who was the Earl of Essex?


  • Robert Devereux, inherited his title during the reign of Elizabeth
  • His father had been a loyal and respected member of the royal court who had helped to put down the Northern Rebellion in 1569
  • Elizabeth took an immediate interest in the Earl, despite being 30 years older, and made him a privy councillor
  • She gave him the monopoly of sweet wine in England, further increasing his power
  • He developed a rivalry with Robert Cecil
  • He won Elizabeth's further respect and admiration with his military success against the Spanish in 1596
• Why did Essex and Elizabeth have a disagreement?

  • He became involved in an argument with Elizabeth during a Privy Council meeting about Ireland
  • In a fit of anger, he turned his back on the queen, and she retaliated by hitting him on the side of his head
  • He almost drew his sword, but was stopped by the other privy councillors
  • Elizabeth put him under house arrest, but he still refused to admit he was wrong
  • However, Elizabeth took no further action against him
• What happened to Essex in Ireland?


  • In January 1599, Elizabeth made Essex the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
  • He was reluctant to go at first, fearing that Cecil would become more powerful while he was away, but he eventually agreed
  • It was his job to crush the rebellious Irish, but not only did he fail to defeat the Irish rebel leader, he also made a truce with him, completely against the queen's orders
  • He knighted some of his army leaders in Ireland, which the queen had forbidden him to do
• What happened to Essex when he returned to England?

  • Essex returned to the queen's palace, dishevelled and dirty, he rushed into her private quarters and caught her without her wig
  • Essex experienced a spectacular and rapid fall from Elizabeth's favour, and she did not renew his sweet wine monopoly
  • This caused him problems as he had large debts
  • His position, wealth, and all his influence gone, Essex faced financial ruin and was determined to remove his rival, Robert Cecil, from power
  • In February 1601, he began to gather supporters
• Essex's rebellion

  • Essex took four of the queen's privy councillors hostage and, with 200 followers, marched to his London house
  • Robert Cecil responded quickly; he labelled Essex a traitor, and many of the rebels abandoned the march
  • Essex returned to his house, where he found that the hostages had been released by his supporters who had abandoned his cause
• The execution of Essex

  • Two weeks after the failed rebellion, Essex was put oon trial for treason
  • In an attempt to save his soul, though not his life, he agreed to identify many other members of the rebellion, including his sister Penelope
  • He was executed on 25 February 1601
  • In exchange for his information, Elzabeth allowed Essex to be executed in private, rather than suffer a public beheading
  • Several other rebels were executed but most of them were simply fined
• Why did plots against Elizabeth fail? - Punishments

  • Elizabeth took swift action against traitors
  • Rebels were tortured and put to death
  • Her former favourite, Essex, whose plot never aimed to remove her from the throne, was beheaded, and her own cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, was kept locked up for many years before she was executed
  • For those who challenged Elizabeth, the consequences of failure were plain to see
• Why did plots against Elizabeth fail? - Unconvincing alternatives

  • Regardless of their religion, most people preferred an English queen over the alternatives: Mary, Queen of Scots, or a foreign king like Philip
  • Mary was not only a former Queen of France but was also blamed by many for her second husband's death
  • Philip II had been King of England before and had shown little interest in the country, while his wife oversaw the brutal execution of hundreds of Protestants
• Why did plots against Elizabeth fail? - Spies

  • The network of spies headed by Walsingham meant that very few plots ever got beyond their earliest stages
• Why did plots against Elizabeth fail? - Religious settlement

  • Elizabeth's religious policy kept most of the population happy
  • Although things became tougher for Catholics as her reign went on, there remained a level of tolerance
  • In areas where Catholicism was more popular, the new settlement was often not enforced to the same extent
• Why did plots against Elizabeth fail? - A skilled politician

  • Elizabeth dealt with her most difficult relationship, the one with her Parliament, very effectively
  • She was skilled at getting her own way while still allowing Lords and MPs to feel influential
  • The issue of marriage and succession is a perfect example of this
  • She would listen to Parliament's advice but was clear where its power ended