Is there more to polar environments than ice?

• Arctic characteristics 1

  • location, 66-90 north of the equator.
  • climate, 10 degrees in summer and -40 degrees in winter, annual precipitation less than 500mm a year.
  • features, ocean is surrounded by continents and large islands with drifting sea pack ice reaching heights of 3m, mountainous regions on land with areas covered in permanent ice and snow, treeless, permafrost, tundra region where only the surface layer of soil thaws in summer.
• Arctic characteristics 2

  • flora, lichen and mosses, low growing shrubs and and small flowering plants like Arctic poppy.
  • fauna, whales, seals, fish, wolves, reindeer, polar bears and bird like the snow goose, all are specifically adapted to live in the harsh conditions.
  • soil, thin and poor quality with very few plants, underlying rocks weather slowly due to low temperatures, permafrost below the active layer remains frozen, the active layer melts so to prevent damage to permafrost buildings are built on stilts.
• Antarctic characteristics 1

  • location, 66-90 degrees south of the equator.
  • climate, summer temperatures of -28 degrees and winter temperatures can reach -90 degrees, annual precipitation inland is 50mm and 200mm at the coast.
  • features, a continent covered by a permanent ice cap and surrounded by the Antarctic Ocean, mountains up to 3794km high, Transantarctic Mountains running along the whole continent, ice reaches 4.5km thick, in winter Antarctica doubles in size due to freezing seawater.
• Antarctic characteristics 2

  • flora, mostly lichen and some mosses, phytoplankton in the ocean.
  • fauna, no indigenous terrestrial mammals, penguins, seals and whales rely on the sea for their food and land provides a habitat for breeding.
  • soil, Antarctic soil can be loose, soft, sandy or frozen, hard and rocky, very little organic matter to support more than mosses or lichens.
• Location of the Arctic and Tundra and Antarctica

  • tundra biome has 400 varieties of flowers and 48 different animals.
  • summer, top layer of soil thaws producing boggy and waterlogged land.
  • winter, frozen soil and long dark winters.

  
• Adaptations of animals to cold environments

  • they are well insulated, thick fur like polar bears or blubber on seals, reduces the energy they have to use to keep warm.
  • some hibernate to conserve energy and survive the winter, Arctic ground squirrel hibernate for 7-8 months.
  • birds migrate to warmer areas during winter like Arctic terns which fly to the Antarctica for the southern hemisphere summer.
  • many have white coats in winter for camouflage, helps predators sneak up on prey, and for prey to hide in snow like Arctic hares.
• Adaptations of plants to cold environments

  • most become dormant to survive the cold and dark winters.
  • they are small and round shaped to provide protection from the wind.
  • they have shallow roots because the permafrost prevents further growth, leaves are small to limit moisture loss like the Caribou Moss that has hollow stems and is dormant until the next rainfall.
  • they have adapted to a growing season of just 50-60 days in summer and are bright and vibrant to attract insects for pollination.
  • they use underground runners or bulbs instead of seeds to reproduce as the growing season is short.
• Interdependence in polar environments

  • both biotic and abiotic components are fragile and easily damaged due to low biodiversity of the cold and dry climates.
  • if temperatures increase more sea ice melts in summer and animals like seals rely on sea ice for breeding and hunting meaning they would be threatened.
  • phytoplankton, krill, fish, penguins, Antarctica has very few plants making phytoplankton the most important producers of the food chain.
• Interdependence example

  • the tundra in summer has greater plant cover allowing surface plants to absorb heat from the sun, preventing the permafrost below from thawing.
  • permafrost provides water and nutrients for plants and any damage to permafrost causes it to melt, leading to flooding and stopping plant growth, it also releases trapped greenhouse gases leading to increased global arming, changing the climate of cold environments, threatening animal and plant cycles.

  
• Human activity

  • causing global temperatures to rise, affecting the permafrost.
  • warming permafrost allows previously frozen flora and fauna to thaw and decompose, releasing methane into the atmosphere, further enhancing the greenhouse effect.
  • increased demands for oil, gas and precious metals increase pressures on cold environments.
  • cold environments have low biodiversity meaning when the population of a species changes it affects the population of dependent species.
  • global warming causes species to move towards the poles and polar bears that have already adapted risk extinction.
• Value of polar environments

  • 70% of the world's freshwater supply is locked in ice and the Arctic region holds 10% with the Antarctic holding 60%.
  • during the Cold War, military bases were established in polar regions and Alaska became a strategic point for the USA due to its proximity to Russia.
  • distant Early Warning systems for potential nuclear attacks from Russia to the USA were built.
• Scientific research

  • data collected from ice cores is used for research into past climate conditions.
  • the clean atmosphere helps astronomers and planetary scientists conduct extensive research in Antarctica using telescopes.
  • weather data is monitored at the poles.
  • observe sea ice thickness, animal populations and effects of climate change.
• Indigenous people

  • no permanent inhabitants in the Antarctic, but the Arctic has a population of 4 million including the Sami and Inuit who have lived sustainably for hundreds of years.
  • all are well adapted to the harsh conditions.
  • from the 18th century, Europeans exploited the resources of the region, driving many species of seals and whales to near extinction.
  • land and resources that once belonged to indigenous people were taken by force.
• Whaling

  • Inuit hunted whales for their oil, meat and bones on a small sustainable scale but during the 19th and early 20th century whaling by Europeans became an industrial process.
  • thousands of whales were hunted and killed every year.
  • when kerosene and petrol became popular and more reliable than whale oil, the whaling industry declines.
  • in 1946 the International Whaling Commission was set up to conserve whales and control the industry any by 1986 a ban on commercial whales was introduced.
  • Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was set up banning all commercial whaling in the area.
• Mineral extraction and energy

  • mineral extraction, there are valuable reserves of gold, silver, iron ore and copper, large oil and gas reserves in the Arctic as well as other minerals deposits.
  • energy, gas and oil are abundant, the US government is extracting oil from the oilfields near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska.
• Fishing and tourism

  • fishing, cold coastal waters have good fish stocks and these waters attract commercial fishing, the deep, cold water is ideal for unusual fish which command a high price in global markets.
  • tourism, places like the Antarctica have seen an increase in tourists with 170,000 tourists visiting in 2020, adventure tourism to extreme cold environments is a growth industry for countries and local communities.
• Impacts of scientific research

  • Antarctic, cost to keep scientists in the Antarctica is $1 million a year so competition for research is high, due to remoteness and extreme conditions they have to undergo physical and psychological screening before being accepted, they left rubbish and broken equipment which polluted the land and sea, damaging habitats and pose risk to wildlife.
  • Arctic, researchers have dumped rubbish and brought non-native invasive species on their shoes, research stations and ships produce chemical and sewage pollution.
• Impacts of indigenous people

  • Antarctic, none.
  • Arctic, only take what they need so don't upset the balance of the ecosystem, many indigenous people now live in towns and cities and these urban areas impact the environment through waste disposal, air and noise pollution from vehicles and heat from buildings melts the permafrost.
• Impacts of whaling

  • Antarctic, despite a ban Japan continue to hunt whales and its industry is government subside under the guise of scientific research, commercial whaling brought many species to near extinction, whales are slow breeders so it takes a long time for their population to recover.
  • Arctic, Bowhead whale lives all year round and hunted to almost extinction, whales are still hunted in Iceland and Norway.
• Impacts of fishing

  • Antarctic, over fishing threatens many species.
  • Arctic, the waters provide 70% of the world's white fish catch, reduced fish populations have knock-on effects on other species in the food chain, some species are affected by getting caught in fishing lines and drowning.
• Impacts of mineral extraction

  • Antarctic, not allowed under the Antarctic Treaty of 1994.
  • Arctic, many countries are increasing their mining activities beneath the tundra, Russia exploited a large amount of the tundra to extract minerals, the extraction process of metals produces pollution, damaging local ecosystems.
• Impacts of energy

  • Antarctic, not allowed under the Antarctic Treaty of 1994, however energy used to heat research stations has led to melting ice and damage to ice sheets.
  • Arctic, heat from terminal buildings, workers homes and transport led to permafrost melt and buildings subsiding, oil spills are difficult to clean up and can harm habitats and wildlife, pipelines used to transport oil and gas have melted the permafrost below and disrupt migration routes of reindeer herds.
• Impacts of tourism

  • Antarctic, cruises cost £10,000 and visits are concentrated in accessible but highly sensitive areas, tourists disrupt breeding colonies of penguins and seals, tourists walked over delicate mosses and plants.
  • Arctic, tourism increases shipping and air travel leading to water and air pollution, increased risk of boats grounding which can cause oil spills, trampling damages fragile vegetation and erodes the landscape leaving paths.
• Case study sustainable tourism in Svalbard

  • Svalbard, Norway is part of a group of islands called an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean.
  • between 74-81 degrees north of the equator, contains areas of unspoilt, raw Arctic wilderness of glaciers and tundra sheltering polar bears, reindeer and Arctic foxes.
  • cold all year round, summer temperatures between 3-7 degrees and winter temperatures between -13--20 degrees.

  
• History

  • first inhabited by whalers 400 years ago, followed by coal miners who extracted large quantities of coal for export.
  • the Svalbard Treaty of 1942 allowed anyone to live on the island without a visa which led to a shift in demographics with English, Thai and others living in Svalbard.
  • with a change in government policies in 1980 tourism has become the main industry and as a result causal workers along with academics, scientists and diplomats are the latest residents.
• Tourism 1

  • 60% of Svalbard is covered in snow and ice with more than half covered with glaciers.
  • 6-7% is covered with any type of vegetation, it has a short growing season, lack of precipitation and barren ground soil.
  • tourists can take wilderness expeditions to see polar bears and extreme ski and snowmobile adventures and kayaking to see glaciers.
  • popular destination of 70,000 tourists with 30,000 arriving on cruise ships and the harbour has been enlarged to accommodate large ships.
• Tourism 2

  • tourism brings much needed money which is returned to Svalbard's economy, and aids in supporting the remote location and its people.
  • it provides jobs for locals, providing accommodation and acting as tour operators so people can support their families.
  • sea ice no longer freezes around Svalbard so ships can dock in winter extending tourist season to all year round which boosts the local economy and provides more opportunities to remain sustainable.
  • travelling by plane is common.
  • Svalbard's energy comes from coal mining and most consumer goods are imported to the island.
• Sustainable tourism

  • the aim is to reduce the overall environmental footprint and make better sustainable choices to balance economic growth with environmental protection.
  • 60% of Svalbard's island are protected with strict limits on vehicle use and tour operators and visitors have to get permission to visit nature reserves.
• Attempts as sustainable tourism

  • the Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located in Longyearbyen and opened in 2008 storing millions of seeds as global backup is seeds are lost to events like mismanagement, natural disasters or sabotage.
  • hotels are built on stilts from sustainable wood, well insulated to prevent heating of permafrost below foundations.
• Ny-Alesund

  • visits to the most northerly settlement of Ny-Alesund are limited and tourists are not allowed to disturb nesting birds or leave litter.
  • visitors have to stick to the 1.5km path around the settlement and any cruise ship can only remain anchored for a few hours to reduce environmental pollution from the ships.
  • recently a ban on the most polluting fuels was put in place meaning that large cruise ships are unable to visit areas around Svalbard.
• Case study the Antarctic Treaty

  • it is considered a global common which is when parts of the Earth are considered to be too important to be owned or managed by one single country and instead should be managed in an equitable and sustainable way for the benefit of everyone.
  • several nations have made territorial claims to parts of the continent.

  
• Antarctic Treaty

  • if individual countries act in their own self-interest rather than the interest of the global community, Antarctica will become damaged and depleted.

  
• Protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty

  • as pressure on Antarctica grew it was decided that the Treaty needed to be strengthened to enhance the protection of the environment.
  • the Protocol on Environmental Protection was signed by 45 nations in 1998.
  • it established Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science.

  
• Other principles of the environmental protocol

  • strict rules were introduced to protect against invasive non native species.
  • visitors are to wear disinfected over boots when on the continent.
  • restrictions on eating, drinking and toileting whilst ashore.
  • only 100 visitors are allowed to land at any one time.
  • cruise ships with over 500 passengers cannot stop.
• Strengths of the Antarctic Treaty

  • it is widely recognised as one of the most successful international agreements.
  • it has lasted over 60 years with no major problems.
  • it promotes peaceful cooperation and has helped to prevent military conflicts and tension.
  • it promotes scientific research and environmental protection.
• Weaknesses of the Antarctic Treaty

  • if countries disagree about an issue one country can stop a resolution going forward.
  • there are no legal penalties for violating agreements.
  • sometimes it takes long for decisions to be made because of the consensus-based decision making process.
• ASOC

  • NGO's also play an important role in monitoring threats and enhancing the protection of Antarctica.
  • the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition was founded in 1978 by a group of NGO's that were concerned about the human activity impact in the region.
  • the coalition includes Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace and the WWF and promotes scientific research with conservation and sustainable use of the area.
  • ASOC managed to establish marine protected areas which help to protect the wildlife in the area.