Psychodynamic explanations

• Freud proposed that the superego is guided by the morality principle and leads to feelings of guilt for wrongdoing and feelings of pride for moral behaviour
• Blackburn argued that if the superego is somehow inadequate then the id (governed by the pleasure principle) is given 'free reign' and is not properly controlled- an uncontrolled id means that criminal behaviour is inevitable
• There are three types of 'inadequate' superego: weak, deviant or over-harsh
• What causes the weak superego?

  Absence of same-sex parent
• Weak superego:

  • During the phallic stage the superego is formed in response to the Oedipus complex
  • If the same-sex parent is absent during this stage the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification
  • This would make criminal behaviour more likely
• What causes the deviant superego?

  The child internalises deviant values
• Deviant superego:

  • The child internalises the same sex parent's moral attitudes to form their superego
  • If these internalised moral attitudes are deviant this would lead to a deviant superego and to offending behaviour later in life
  • For instance, a boy who is raised by a criminal father is likely to learn that wrongdoing is acceptable and will not associate guilt with wrongdoing
• What is an over-harsh superego?

  When criminal acts satisfy a need for punishment
• Over-harsh superego:

  • An excessively punitive or overly harsh superego means the individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety- the superego has strict rules and is unforgiving
  • This may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment
• Affectionless psychopathy:

  • Bowlby argued that a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-figure was crucial to future relationships, well-being and development
  • A loss of attachment in infancy (maternal deprivation) could lead to affectionless psychopathy (lack of empathy and guilt) and increased likelihood of delinquency
• 44 thieves study:

  • Bowlby: 44 thieves. 14 of these thieves showed signs of affection less psychopathy- 12 of these had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in infancy
  • In a control group, only two had experienced prolonged separation (maternal deprivation)
  • Bowlby concluded that the effects of maternal deprivation had caused affectionless psychopath and delinquent behaviour among juvenile thieves
• Limitation: gender bias

  Psychodynamic theory assumed girls develop a weaker superego that boys- this is because girls do not experience the castration anxiety associated with the Oedipus complex so have less need to identify with their mothers. This should mean females are more prone to criminal behaviour. This is simply not supported by evidence from prison populations. This highlights a serious flaw in the psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour
• Limitation: causality

  Lewis analysed data from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending behaviour. Even if there was a link between maternal deprivation and crime, this does nor necessarily indicate a causal link. Genetics and differential association theory are both alternative explanations. Any correlation found between maternal deprivation and criminality cannot be said to have found a causal link between the two variables
• Limitation: contradictory evidence

  There is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults- contradicting Blackburn's weak superego argument. Similarly, if children raised by deviant parents go on to commit crime themselves, this could be due to the influence of genetics or socialisation, rather than a deviant superego. It is also implausible that criminality reflects an unconscious desire for punishment- offenders go to great lengths to conceal their actions to avoid punishment
• Limitation: problems with Bowlby's research

  Bowlby has been accused of researcher bias (e.g. in the 44 thieves study) because his expectations may have influence the responses of his interviewees. Furthermore, Koluchova found deprivation effects are not inevitable. Some cases of very severe deprivation have had good outcomes provided a child has good aftercare. This undermines the evidence used to support the psychodynamic explanations