Chapter 10

• Representational systems - In neo-Piagetian terminology, the third stage in development of self-definition, characterized by breadth, balance, and the integration and assessment of various aspects of the self.
• Industry versus inferiority - Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority.
• Internalizing behaviors - Behaviors by which emotional problems are turned inward; for example, anxiety or depression.
• Externalizing behaviors - Behaviors by which a child acts out emotional difficulties; for example, aggression or hostility.
• Coregulation - Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-regulation.
• Coregulation is affected by the overall relationship between parent and child.
• Prejudice: unfavorable attitudes toward outsiders, especially members of certain racial or ethnic groups.
• The tally may be composed of positive nominations, negative nominations, or no nominations. This measure is known as sociometric popularity
• Stage 0: Momentary playmateship (ages 3 to 7) - children tend to think only about what they want from a relationship
• Stage 1: One-way assistance (ages 4 to 9) - in this unilateral level, a "good friend" does what the child wants the friend to do
• Stage 2: Two-way-fair-weather cooperation (ages 6 to 12) - involves give-and-take but still serves many separate self-interests, rather than the common interests of two friends
• Stage 3: Intimate, mutually shared relationships (ages 9 to 15) - children view a friendship as an ongoing, systematic, committed relationship that incorporates more than doing things for each other.
• Stage 4: Autonomous interdependence (beginning at age 12) - children respect friends' need for both dependency and autonomy
• Instrumental aggression - aggression aimed at achieving an objective—the hallmark of the preschool period—becomes much less common.
• Instrumental, or proactive - aggressors view force and coercion as effective ways to get what they want.
• Hostile attribution bias - Tendency to perceive others as trying to hurt one and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense
• Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) - Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance.
• Conduct disorder (CD) - Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others.
• School phobia - Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety disorder or social phobia.
• Separation anxiety disorder - Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached.
• Social phobia - Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations.
• Generalized anxiety disorder - Anxiety not focused on any single target.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors.
• Childhood depression - Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide
• Individual psychotherapy - Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one
• Family therapy - Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning.
• Behavior therapy - Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones; also called behavior modification
• Art therapy - Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media.
• Play therapy - Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope with emotional distress.
• Drug therapy - Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders.
• Resilient children - Children who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events.
• Protective factors - Influences that reduce the impact of early stress and tend to predict positive outcomes