Liberalism

• John Locke (1632-1704)

  • ‘Father of Liberalism’
  • believes human nature is rational + guided by self-interest
  • role of state is to improve individuals situations
  • free-market capitalism + private property is heart of the economy
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)

  • wrote ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’ + argued that women are not naturally inferior to men - wrote during French Revolution, inspired by ideas of equality in France
  • believed men + women have equal capacity as rational beings
  • state should guarantee equal rights for men + women e.g full employment + education
  • society conditioned women to have limited ambitions
• John Stuart Mill (1806-73)

  • ‘On Liberty’ advocated women’s rights + written during Industrial Revolution
  • believed human nature was ‘constantly changing‘ + each individual is unique
  • approved of democracy + emphasised value of education to enable valid voting
  • wanted tolerance for minorities + laissez-faire capitalism
• Thomas Hill Green

  • believed human nature was social + individualistic
  • emphasised necessity of equality of opportunity to achieve ‘social justice’
  • state should promote freedom by protecting humans from social injustice
  • supportive of laissez-faire capitalism
  • ‘positive freedom’ - cooperation of all individuals within society, not just the lack of restraints
• John Rawls (1921 - 2002)

  • believed mankind is selfish yet empathetic
  • ‘veil of ignorance’ - if we got to choose a society blind, wed choose a fairer, more equal society -> advocated for equality of opportunity
  • strong advocate for enabling state + state intervention was needed fro equality of opportunity
  • supportive of Keynesian economics
• Betty Friedan (1921 - 2006)

  • wrote ‘Feminine Mystique‘
  • believed women + men are equally capable
  • traditional society conditioned women to adopt certain gender roles - childcare/home-making
  • believed state should pass laws to bring about greater equality
  • women are capable of significant contributions to capitalist economy if historical bias is over come e.g equal pay laws
• Classical liberalism - believe individual freedom is best achieved with minimal state + negative liberty - private property is a natural right
• Modern Liberalism - believe the state must help in a more active way e.g economic redistribution
• Individualism - importance of each individual
• Natural right - idea that all humans are born with rights e.g right to light liberty + property
• Minimal state - role of state must be restricted to preserve individual liberty
• Enabling state - larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential
• Positive liberty - freedom to live a fulfilling life with government interference if needed
• Negative liberty - freedom from government interference
• Developmental individualism - idea that individual freedom is linked to humans flourishing
• Egoistical individualism - human beings are naturally drawn to their own selfish interests.
• Meritocracy - system which promotes individual ability + achievement
• Tolerance - being tolerant towards different ideas to reduce conflict
• Foundational equality - idea that we are all born with equal entitlement
• Social contract - (Locke + Hobbes) linked to Enlightenment thinkers -> indicates that the state should be a deal between government + governed where the governed should only defer to government if the state guarantees certain outcomes e.g protection of natural rights
• Mechanistic theory - idea that the state was created by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their interests
• Harm Principle - John Stuart Mill - people should be free to act however they wish unless their actions were to harm someone else
• State of nature - notion of what life was like before the emergence of the state -> used by Hobbes and Locke
• State of law - Liberals have a more positive outlook of human nature + believe that the state of nature was tolerable , a state of law would only be desirable if it represented an improvement for the situation of the governed.
• Two Treatises of Government -John Locke (Father of Lib) published in 1690
• View of human nature:

  • egotistical individualism vs developmental individualism
  • self-realisation, self-determination, self-fulfilment
  • state of nature based on natural rights, natural laws + natural justice -> tolerable, rational environment - life, liberty, property
  • a state of law is only viable if natural rights are protected + if individuals are better off as a result vs state of nature -> social contract + optimistic view of human nature
• View of society:

  • 'natural state' -> society precedes state due to rational, respectful human nature
  • as choosing to create a state, individuals must be free to pursue self-fulfilment
  • universal self-fulfilment is not possible without tolerance - negative freedom or harm principle
  • Mill's emphasis on education to overcome minoirty conflicts caused by ignorance
• View of economy:

  • belief in private property as a fundamental natural right
  • Adam Smith -> laissez-faire, free trade, private enterprise, 'invisible hand' of market forces would enrich all
  • 'trickle down' and meritocracy - equality of opportunity if not outcome
• View of the state:

  • rejection of pre-Enlightenment -> divine right of kings, monarchies, hereditary power
  • state of law is preferable as long as natural rights advance - if threatened, state is no longer desirable
  • social contract + government by consent - belief in constitutional or limited state based on foundational equality (all born equal) - 'fragmented + scattered power'
  • democratic? complex - concerns about tyranny of majority, uneducated voters, non-property voters
  • some liberals propose limitations on voting rights as a result
• Tyranny - all power in the hands of a single ruler
• Tyranny of the majority - where the majority makes decisions that are not in the best interest of the minority