cell energy respiration

• A nucleoside comprises a purine or pyrimidine base and a pentose sugar.
• Lactic acid fermentation is an anaerobic process that takes place in some bacteria and animal cells, including muscle cells.
• A nucleotide is a nucleoside in which C-5 is linked to one, two, or three phosphate groups by phosphoester bond.
• Glucose breakdown involves four phases: Glycolysis, Transformation of Pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA, Kreb’s or Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.
• Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen, hence it is anaerobic.
• The Transformation of Pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA involves the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in three steps: decarboxylation, the reduction of NAD+, and the attachment of coenzyme A.
• Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle produces NADH (3 x 2 = 6 NADH, 1 x 2 = 2 FADH, 2 x 2 = 4 ATP).
• Chemiosmosis is the ability of certain membranes to use a hydrogen ion gradient to drive ATP formation.
• The electron transport system is located in the cristae.
• As electrons move from one molecular complex to the other, Hydrogen ions (H+) are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane space.
• Ethanol fermentation, also known as alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process in which a conversion of sugars into cellular energy occurs.
• ATP leaves the matrix by way of a channel protein.
• The sugar molecules that can undergo this process include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
• Ethanol fermentation usually converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP.
• The electron motive force generated by the two chloroplasts photosystems enables the chloroplasts to drive electron transfer from water to carbohydrate, which is opposite to the direction of electron transfer in the mitochondrion.
• Disaccharides such as sucrose can also be used in lactic acid fermentation.
• Lactate is lactic acid in solution.
• Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process in which glucose or a similar sugar molecule is converted into cellular energy and metabolite lactate.
• Many microbes, plants, and human muscle cells are capable of undergoing fermentation.
• During fermentation, sugar molecules are converted into alcohols and acids.
• Fermentation is a process that takes place under anaerobic conditions, therefore, it occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen.
• As hydrogen ions flow down a concentration gradient from the intermembrane space into the mitochondrial matrix, ATP is synthesized by the enzyme ATP synthase.
• The mitochondrion and chloroplast function as electrical energy conversion devices.
• These are the byproducts of ethanol fermentation.
• The sugar molecule in lactic acid fermentation can be either glucose or another six-carbon sugar molecule.
• During the production of cellular energy, this process produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as well.