4. The Berlin Crisis, 1961

• Tensions surrounding Berlin since 1945:

  • E. Berliners worked in W. Berlin
  • Iron Curtain speech
  • Berlin Blockade + Airlift -> NATO
  • Soviet expansion into E. Europe
  • Berlin Crisis of 1948-9
  • Berlin Wall (1961)
  • Marshall aid -> W. Berlin recovered faster
  • W. Deutschmark
  • different ideologies (capitalism vs communism)
• Increased tension over Berlin, 1958-61: (1)

  • Refugee problem in Berlin:
  • 1949-61 - 4 million E. Germans fled to the West through Berlin -> dissatisfied w/ economic + political conditions
  • forced collectivisation of agriculture + end of private trading = not popular
  • shortages of consumer good - could be bought cheaply in W. Berlin
  • Jan 1961 -> no. of refugees increased to 20,000+/month
  • many refugee - professional people (eg the entire maths department of the uni of Leipzig defected + skilled craftsmen)
• Increased tension over Berlin, 1958-61: (2)

  • Refugee problem in Berlin: (2)
  • drain of labour + economic output threatened to bring an economic collapse of E. Germany
  • Khrushchev determined to solve problem - Berlin was a gap in the Iron Curtain (wanted to close gap)
• Increased tension over Berlin, 1958-61: (3)

  • Khrushchev's Berlin Ultimatum, 1958:
  • accused allies of breaking Potsdam agreement + told them to leave Berlin within 6 months -> suggested it become a neutral + free city
  • President Eisenhower -> prepared to negotiate (didn't want to risk war) + Khrushchev's visit to USA in 1959 seemed successful
  • led to Paris Summit, 1960
• Increased tension over Berlin, 1958-61: (4)

  • Paris Summit, 1960:
  • Khrushchev + Eisenhower due to meet - 14 May 1960
  • 9 days before summit, SU announced it shot down an American U-2 spy plane near Sverdlovsk -> pilot captured + put on trial
  • Khrushchev demanded flights stop + apology issued -> Eisenhower - prepared to stop flights but not apologise
  • bitter exchanges (K <-> E) at a preliminary meeting -> Khrushchev stormed out 1st session + Eisenhower cancelled his planned visit to SU
  • Summit didn't take place
• Increased tension over Berlin, 1958-61: (5)

  • Vienna Summit, 1961:
  • Khrushchev fixed another meeting w/ John F. Kennedy (new P) -> thought he could push him around but didn't realise Kennedy re-asserted the Truman Doctrine in his inauguration speech (20 Jan 1961)
  • Summit - Khrushchev demanded W. forces left W. Berlin + said he would make a treaty w/ E. Germany that would end all occupation rights (inc W. access to Berlin)
  • Kennedy refused + added $3.5 bil to defence -> Khrushchev increases Soviet defence budget by 30+%
• Construction of the Berlin Wall, 1961: (1)

  • 13 August -> Khrushchev closed border (E.-W. Berlin) + streets were torn up - could erect a barbed wire entanglement around the 43km which separated the 2 Berlins
  • USA + allies didn't nothing -> new barrier was within the boundary of E. Berlin
  • within a few days -> construction began + on wall, chain fences + minefields -> area also cleared so E. German guards could shoot any E. German trying to cross to W. Berlin
• Construction of the Berlin Wall. 1961: (2)

  • eventually officials replaced the wall (new one was stronger + 3.6m high + 1.2m wide -> very difficult to climb over)
  • area beyond the wall - impossible to get through -> inc patrolling soldiers + dogs + floodlights + trip-wire machine guns
• Impact of the Berlin Wall: (1)

  • US-Soviet relations:
  • led to a serious stand-off (Oct 1961)
  • USA disputed the right of Soviet troops to patrol + guard the checkpoints + check the passports of American officials who passed through these checkpoints
  • USA stationed troops + tanks on the W. side of the checkpoints -> Soviets did the same on the E. side
  • real possibility of armed conflict
  • Kennedy worked to avoid conflict + promised Khrushchev if SU removed its troops so would USA -> ended the stand-off
• Impact of the Berlin Wall: (2)

  • Germans:
  • very difficult to escape + some people tried tunnelling/ swimming where the border ran along Berlin's Teltow Canal/jumping out of windows near the wall
  • some climbed the wall hoping E. Germans would take poor aim when ordered to fire at them -> many people lost thier lives
  • families = split + travel restrictions made it very hard for relatives to see one another Germans also felt let down -> Khrushchev Brooke the 1949 agreements about the running of Berlin + Kennedy didn't go to war
• Impact of the Berlin Wall: (3)

  • SU:
  • regained control + shown that they were serious about keeping people in
  • peace had been mentioned
  • Khrushchev + SU's image had been damaged further in front of the W. allies + capitalist world
• The end of the Berlin crisis:

  • Khrushchev felt he had beaten Kennedy + was prepared for the next chance to out-manoeuvre him
  • said the wall was 'guarding the gates of socialist paradise'
  • flow of refugees stopped + economic crisis in E. Germany slowly evaporated
  • although Khrushchev failed to remove W. forces from Berlin -> crisis ended + tension in Europe eased
• Kennedy's visit to Berlin, 1963:

  • wall = symbol of division + was a constant reminder that Berlin was still a tool of the superpowers
  • Kennedy visited W. Germany in 1963 - made several speeches in some of its major cities + met w/ huge cheering crowds
  • W. Berlin -> he embarked a 30 mile tour of the main streets (lined w/ ~1.5 mil people out of 2.5 mil) + spoke to a crowd of 200,000 in the city centre near the wall
  • some E. Berliners listening applauded him too