Research Methods

• What is a Lab Experiment?

  An experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment
• What are Strengths of a Lab Experiment?

  • High internal validity
  • High replicability
  • High levels of control of the Independent Variable so we can establish cause & effect
• What are Weaknesses of Lab Experiments?

  • Low external validity
  • Risk of demand characteristics
  • Artificial so lacks generalisability (mundane realism/ecological validity)
• What are Field Experiments?

  Experiments that take place in everyday settings but still involve manipulation of the Independant variable
• What are the Strengths of Field Experiments?

  • High mundane realism/ecological validity
  • High external validity
• What are the Weaknesses of Field Experiments?

  • Difficult to replicate
  • Less control of extraneous variables
  • Low internal validity
  • Ethical issues (such as lack of informed consent & privacy)
• What are Natural Experiments?

  The Independent Variable occurs naturally rather than being manipulated by the researcher. Can be conducted in a lab or field setting
• What are the Weaknesses of Natural Experiments?

  • Opportunities may only come along rarely
  • Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
• What are Quasi Experiments?

  Has an Independent Variable based on existing difference between people (age, gender etc) with no manipulation from the experimenter
• What are the Strengths of Quasi Experiments?

  Usually under controlled conditions - high internal validity & replicability
• What are the Weaknesses of Quasi Experiments?

  • Can't randomly allocate participants so there may be confounding variables
  • Difficult to establish cause & effect without manipulation of the IV
• What is a Naturalistic Observation?

  Behaviour is studied in a natural environment where nothing is changed
• Evaluation of a Naturalistic Observation?

  • Strengths - High external validity
  • Weaknesses - Hard to replicate
  • Weaknesses - Lack of control over variables
• What is a Controlled Observation?

  Some variables are controlled by the researcher through manipulation or by controlling extraneous/confounding variables
• Evaluation of Controlled Observations?

  • Strength - Some variables controlled by the researcher
  • Weaknesses - Low external validity
• What is a Covert Observation?

  Participants don't know they are being observed
• Evaluation of a Covert Observation?

  • Strength - Reduces demand characteristics
  • Strength - Increased internal validity
  • Weaknesses - Could be unethical (Lack of informed consent, right to withdraw, & privacy)
• What is an Overt Observation?

  Participants know they are being observed and have given consent
• Evaluation of an Overt Observation?

  • Strength - More ethical as participants are aware that they are being studied
  • Weaknesses - Increased demand characteristics
• What is a Participant Observation?

  Researcher becomes part of the group they are studying
• Evaluation of a Participant Observation?

  • Strength - Increased insight
  • Strength - Increased external validity
  • Weaknesses - Could lose objectivity (going native)
• What is a Non-Participant Observation?

  The researcher remains separate from those that they are studying
• Evaluation of a Non-Participant Observation?

  • Strength - More objective
  • Weaknesses - Might lose valuable insight as they are too far removed
• Evaluation of Questionnaires:

  • They can be distributed to large numbers of participants
  • Researchers don't have to be present
  • Particpants may not be truthful
  • Social desirability bias
  • Response bias
• What are Open Question Questionnaires & evaluate them:

  • Questions have no fixed answers & respondents can answer freely. Tends to produce qualitative data
  • Strength - Answers are higher in depth so you can gain better understanding of individual responses
  • Weaknesses - More difficult & time consuming to analyse
• What are Closed Question Questionnaires & evaluate them:

  • Fixed responses through Yes/No answers or Likert scales. Produces Quantitative data
  • Strength - Easier to analyse & quick to administer
  • Weaknesses - Less detailed answers. Response bias is more of an issue
• Evaluation of Interviews:

  • Can be distributed to large numbers of participants
  • Researcher doesn't have to be present
  • Participants may not be truthful
  • Social desirability bias
  • Response bias
• What are Structured Interviews & evaluate them:

  • Questions are pre-determined & in a fixed order
  • Strength - Easily repeated, Less chance of interviewer bias & higher inter-interviewer reliability
  • Weaknesses - Interviewers cannot deviate from the questions which reduces the richness of data
• What are Unstructured Interviews & evaluate them:

  • No pre-determined questions but a general aim of the interview. The participant is encouraged to talk freely and expand on answers
  • Strength - More detail as the interviewer can explore different avenues of questioning
  • Weaknesses - Higher risk of interviewer bias (thus requires a well-trained interviewer = money). Also, more time consuming
• What are Correlations?

  • Test the strength & direction of a relationship between co-variables
  • No independent & dependant variable which means correlational studies don't tell you about causal relationships
  • The relationship is plotted on a scattergram & a correlation coefficient is calculated. Coefficient is between -1 and 1
• Difference between Negative & Positive Correlation:

  • Negative = as one co-variable increases, the other decreases
  • Positive = as one co-variable increases, so does the other
• Evaluation of Correlational Studies:

  • It can tell us if further research is justified
  • May be extraneous variables that influence results, meaning cause & effect can't be established
• What is a Content Analysis?

  • Used to analyse qualitative data & convert it into quantitative data
  • Used in interview transcripts, articles etc
  • Uses either frequency analysis (how many times a word appears) or concordance analysis (how many times a phrase appears)
• What is a Thematic Analysis?

  An alternative to content analysis which first assesses the source/material for common themes. These themes are then coded, like content analysis
• Evaluation of Content & Thematic Analysis:

  • Good for studying qualitative data in a numerical way
  • Enables researchers to analyse abstract concepts (emotions & feelings)
  • Not very scientific as coding can be subjective
  • Can have low inter-rater reliability
  • Difficult to establish general laws
• What is a Case Study?

  An in-depth study that gathers a lot of detail about one person or a small group. It is usually conducted over an extended period of time
• Evaluation of Case Studies:

  • Rich & detailed data
  • High ecological validity
  • Subjectivity of the researcher can cause low internal validity
  • Lacks generalisability
  • Difficult to replicate & time consuming to conduct
• What is the Aim?

  What you want to find out. They are developed from previous theories and are general statements that describe the research you want to conduct
• What is a Hypotheses?

  A prediction of what you think will happen in your research. It is precise & measurable statement of the relationship between 2 operationalised variables
• What is the Alternative vs Null Hypothesis?

  Alternative -> Makes a prediction about the effect of the IV on the DV or on the correlation between the co-variables

  Null -> Statement of 'no difference' or 'no relationship'