Earth

• The lithosphere is the solid outer part of the earth, including the crust and upper mantle.
• The inner core is the solid, dense center of the Earth, composed mainly of iron and nickel.
• Plate boundaries are areas where two or more tectonic plates meet, resulting in various geological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain building, and ocean floor spreading.
• The outer core is a liquid layer surrounding the inner core, also composed of iron and nickel.
• The asthenosphere is the layer below the lithosphere that can flow slowly over time.
• Convection currents are caused by differences in temperature within the mantle.
• The mantle is the thick layer beneath the crust that makes up most of the volume of the Earth.
• Convergent plate boundary occurs when two plates move towards each other, leading to subduction zones, island arcs, and trenches.
• Transform plate boundary occurs when two plates slide past each other horizontally, causing earthquakes but no magma movement.
• Convection currents occur when hot material rises and cooler material sinks, driven by differences in density due to temperature variations.
• Mantle convection occurs within the mantle, driving plate movement and shaping the surface features of the Earth.
• Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior during an earthquake, providing information about its structure and composition.
• Earthquakes occur when rocks suddenly break along fault lines due to stress buildup from plate movement.
• Earthquake epicenters are the points directly above the location where an earthquake originates.
• Seismic waves are vibrations generated by an earthquake that travel through the Earth's interior.
• Seismic waves travel through the interior of the Earth at different speeds depending on their type (P-waves and S-waves) and composition (solid vs. liquid).
• Divergent plate boundaries occur when two plates move away from each other, resulting in mid-ocean ridges or continental rift valleys.
• Continental drift refers to the gradual movement of continents across the surface of the earth due to tectonic forces.
• Subduction is the process by which one tectonic plate moves under another, resulting in volcanism and mountain building.
• Plate tectonics refers to the theory that explains how the continents are arranged on the Earth's crust.
• The crust is composed mainly of silicate minerals such as feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, quartz, and biotite.
• The Richter scale measures the magnitude or intensity of earthquakes based on their energy release.
• Tsunamis are large ocean waves caused by sudden displacement of water, often triggered by underwater earthquakes.
• The theory of continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century but faced skepticism until evidence supporting it emerged later.
• Convergent plate boundaries occur when two plates collide with each other, leading to subduction zones or ocean trenches.
• hotspots are said to be formed by mantle plumes near the core-mantle boundary
• seamounts are extinct underwater volcanoes
• volcanic arcs are formed from subduction zones
• stratovolcanoes are conical layers of hardened lava, tephra, volcanic ask, and pumice
• composite or stratovolcano is common in subduction zons
• volcanoes are also considered as mountains
• mantle plumes are warm and light bodies emerging from core-mantle boundary
• magma is rich in silica
• tectonic plates are irregular masses of rocks that contain oceanic and continental lithosphere
• continental plates are composed of granite rocks which are light materials
• oceanic plate are denser as it consists of basalt rocks
• continental plates are lighter but its crust is thicker, while oceanic plates are heavier but with thinner crust
• crust moves through strong forces resulting land formations such as folded mountains
• Orogeny is the slow pushing of the crust that forms mountains
• 1. syncline is downward curve
  2. anticline is upward curve