Organisation

• The order of organisation consist of cells, tissues, organs and organ system
• Enzymes are biological catalysts(a substance which increases the speed of a reaction, without being changed or used up) that speed up the reactions in the body without being used. Enzymes are large proteins made up of chains of amino acids. A substrate is complementary to the enzyme and fits perfectly into the active site. This forms an enzyme-substrate complex
• When temperature is high, enzyme and substrates will collide more but there is a risk that if the temperature is too high the enzyme will denature. The optimum temperature is 37 degrees
• An enzyme can denature if the PH of a solution is too high or low
• Place a drop of iodine onto each well of a spotting tile.
• Place a heat proof mat under a bunsen burner and a tripod and gauze on top.
• Put a beaker of water on top of the tripod and heat it to 35 degrees.
• Use a syringe to add 1 cm^3 of amylase and buffer solution with a PH of 5 to a boiling tube.
• Use test tube holders and put the tube into the beaker of water and leave for 5 mins.
• Every 30s, put a drop into a well.
• If it remains brown-orange, starch is no longer present.
• Repeat with different PH values and attempt to control variables such as: Concentration, volume of amylase solution and temperature.
• Amylase breaks starch into simple sugars and can be found in the salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine. Iodine test is used to check for the presence of starch and changes from browny orange to blue black. The benedict's test is used to test sugars and changes from blue to brick red
• Protease breaks proteins into amino acids and is found in the stomach, small intestine and pancreas. The biuret test is used to test for proteins and changes from blue to purple
• Lipase turns lipids into glycerol and fatty acids. Lipase is found in the pancreas and small intestine. The emulsion test(ethanol) is used to test for lipids it turns from colourless to cloudy white
• Sudan III tests for lipids it forms a top red layer if lipids are present
• Bile emulsifies fats and neutralises HCl
• The heart contains muscular walls to provide a strong heartbeat. 4 chambers separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. There are also valves to prevent backflow and coronary arteries to provide the blood with its own blood supply. Pacemaker cells are located in the right atrium
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high pressure. They have thick muscle and elastic tissue and a small lumen. Veins carry blood towards the heart and have a thin muscle and elastic tissue, valves and a large lumen
• Plasma is a pale yellow liquid which carries the components of the blood and waste products. For examples, it carries urea, CO2, hormones, proteins, antibodies, antitoxins and amino acids
• Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which binds with oxyhaemoglobin. They have a biconcave shape to increase SA and do not have a nucleus. They are small to fit through capillaries
• Platelets are small fragments of cells which help clot blood when wounded
• White blood cells help destroy microbes and pathogens. They are either Lymphocytes or Phagocytes. Lymphocytes identify pathogens and release antibodies which bind to their antigens causing them to clump up. Phagocytes perform phagocytosis where pathogens are engulfed and digested
• Coronary Heart Disease is the build up of fatty material. It is non-communicable
• There are two main methods to heal it. Stents(Metal mesh placed inside to widen the artery making more room for blood to flow. They squash fatty deposits to widen the lumen) and statins(Drugs which lower levels of LDL(Bad Cholesterol)). Stents have quick recovery time and are effective at lowering risks. However there is a chance of infection or thrombosis. Statins reduce risks and increase HDL. They also prevent other diseases. However they have to be continuously taken and may not have an immediate effect
• Faulty valves can be replaced by biological and mechanical valves. Biological valves carry a risk of rejection and last about 12-15 years. Mechanical valves last long and need constant medication
• Health is the state of physical and mental well being. Diseases effect health and are either communicable or non-communicable. Infections can cause tumours which are either benign or malignant. Benign are not cancerous and malignant are cancerous
• In plant tissue, epidermal tissue is covered by waxy cuticle to reduce water loss, palisade mesophyll has multiple chloroplast at the top, spongy mesophyll have gases diffuse in and out the cell, xylem allow movement of water and mineral ions(Transpiration), phloem allow movement of Cell sap(Translocation), meristem tissue: allows the cell to grow, stomata: Open and close to change the amount of gas exchange, guard cells open and close the stomata
• When temperature increases, molecules move faster meaning the rate of evaporation, transpiration and photosynthesis increases. This means more stomata is open and water evaporates
• When humidity increases, the concentration gradient reduces resulting in slower diffusion and transpiration
• When air movement increases, the concentration gradient becomes steeper and diffusion and transpiration occurs faster
• When light intensity increases, photosynthesis increases so more stomata are open meaning transpiration increases
• Guard cells open and close stomata. They have thin outer walls and thick inner walls. They are light sensitive and are at the bottom of the cell. The cell fills and changes shape when there is a lot of water available