morfologia y sintaxis. Yule

• In many languages, what appear to be single forms actually contain a large number of "word-like" elements.
• In a hierarchy, the verb phrase (VP) is higher than and contains the verb (V) and a noun phrase (NP).
• The noun phrase (NP) is higher than and contains the article (Art) and the noun (N).
• A better way of looking at linguistic forms in different languages is to use the notion of "elements" rather than depend on identifying only "words."
• Morphology, literally meaning "the study of forms," was originally used in biology, but is now also used to describe the study of those basic "elements" in a language.
• Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning or grammatical function.
• Units of grammatical function include forms used to indicate past tense or plural, and other grammatical functions.
• There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for example, new and tour.
• There are also bound morphemes, which are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, such as re-, -ist, -ed, -s, these forms are affixes.
• All affixes in English are bound morphemes.
• The free morphemes when used with bound morphemes attached, the basic word forms are technically known as stems.
• In words such as receive, reduce and repeat, the bound morpheme re- can be identified at the beginning, but the elements -ceive, -duce and -peat are not separate word forms in English and hence cannot be free morphemes.
• Some words derived from Latin, in which the element treated as the stem is not a free morpheme. eg. Re-peat These types of forms are sometimes described as "bound stems."
• Lexical morphemes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that carry the "content" of the messages we convey.
• Functional morphemes are articles, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns.
• Derivational morphemes are a category of bound morphemes used to make new words or to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.
• Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words in the language, but rather to indicate the grammatical function of a word.
• English has only eight inflectional morphemes, all suffixes, marking possessive (-'s) and plural (-s).
• The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
• The first rule in a set of simple phrase structure rules captures a very general rule of English sentence structure: "a sentence (S) rewrites as a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP).
• The sentence "Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella" provides an example of structural ambiguity.
• In syntactic analysis, we use conventional abbreviations for the parts of speech such as N (noun), Art (article), Adj (adjective), and V (verb).
• In English, the verb phrase (VP) consists of the verb (V) plus the following noun phrase (NP).
• A tree diagram can be used to represent the more complex structure of an English verb phrase (VP).
• Tree diagrams provide a visual representation of underlying syntactic structure.
• There are different levels in the analysis: a level of analysis at which a constituent such as NP is represented and a different, lower, level at which a constituent such as N is represented.
• Tree diagrams provide a way of representing the hierarchical nature of underlying structure.
• Phrase structure rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in a particular order.
• Lexical rules specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents such as PN.
• A noun phrase can contain a pronoun (it), a proper noun (John), or any other constituent.
• There are four inflections attached to verbs: -s (3rd person singular, present tense), -ing (present participle), -ed (past tense) and -en (past participle).
• Two inflections attach to adjectives: -er (comparative) and -est (superlative).
• An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word.
• A derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word.
• Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix used together, they always appear in that order.
• Morphs, Allomorphs and Special Cases
• We need to be more careful in forming the rule that underlies the structure of prepositional phrases in English.
• In earlier approaches, there was an attempt to produce an accurate description of the sequence or ordering "arrangement" of elements in the linear structure of the sentence.
• Deep and Surface Structure
• The inflectional suffix -ed is used in the typical derivation: flirted, hugged and kissed.