attraction and close relationships

• early times of attractiveness

  • muscular men seen as attractive in 16th cent, with the discovery of hercules and warrior the 'spear-bearer'
  • little influence because of myths about muscles: contributed to heart disease, was given by god as a mark of low class etc
  • muscles = unattractive; vulgar; indicators of labour and potentially deviant self-regard
• early times and attractiveness

  • in eastern and western cultures: money, status and power was equated with the ideal men, masculinity and attractiveness
  • 16th, 17th and 18th cent: masculine beauty was expressed in adornments rather than physical attributes
• 19th century western cultures

  • early 19th cent, mainly in europe (england in particular), the ideal man was the gentle-man
  • has no muscles
  • was pale and tall
• 19th century western cultures: the gentle man

  • this view held sway in early 20th cent despite:
  • the developed physiques of tarzan in the films
  • the fitness revolution in early 70s that celebrated male figure being skinny
• 21st century western cultures

  • muscular fit men considered attractive and healthy (due to internet access to info about health
  • attractive men: toned muscles and low body fat %
  • seen as a privilege status: indicates they can afford expensive gyms, eat well
• 21st century western cultures

  • nonetheless, unclear whether mens muscles today indicate health, narcissism or manliness
  • but, muscular women seen as masculine/ unfeminine and unattractive (e.g. butch, lesbian)
• culture and facial attraction

  • many studies have shown that symmetric faces are considered attractive in western cultures, but only a few have examined this in other cultures
  • little et al examined preferences for symmetry in European UK population and in the Hadza tribe
  • results show there was a link between cultures and general judgements of facial attractiveness
• little et al

  results: symmetric faced were more attractive across both the cultures, but more so in the Hadza. than in the uk

  hadza men placed a greater value on facial symmetry in female faces

  Hadza women reported increased preferences for symmetry in men's faces when they were pregnant or nursing
• little et al

  conclusions

  • there may be an evolutionary relevance in symmetry preference, and that its strategic between cultures and within individuals of a single culture
  • the different ecological conditions may play a role in generating these differences in preference
  • symmetry may indicate genetic quality, which may be more important among the hadza with much higher mortality rates from birth onwards than uk society
• what is beautiful is good

  • examined whether the stereotype 'what is beautiful is good' existed
  • they considered the potential content of this stereotype
  • whether physically attractive people are assumed to have more socially desirable personalities compared to unattractive people
  • whether PhA people are assumed to lead better lives than UnP
• what is beautiful is good

  research procedure:

  • 60 students participated
  • given 1 photo of each: physically attractive, average attractive and unattractive person
  • told to rate each photo according to : 27 different personality traits, person's future happiness and occupational success
• beautiful is good other studies

  income

  • participants perceived 5-10% higher earnings for average and highly physically attractive people than unattractive people
• beautiful is good: other studies

  social life

  • participants perceived physically attractive people to be less lonely, more popular, more socially skilled, more sexually experienced
  • no significant association between physical attractiveness and personality measures or mental ability
• physical attractiveness:

  • women judged importance of different characteristics for their ideal relationship
  • more men than women reported that 'good looks' were important
• mens vs womens mate selection preference: study 1 married couples

  92 married couples recruited via newspaper ads

  completed battery of assessments

  • marital preferences: rating of 76-item questionnaire: e.g., adaptable, dominant, good cook, lyal attractive, tall, wealthy, witty
  • personality questionnaire
  • temperament questionnaire
• sex differences and attraction (results ) buss and barnes

  female marital preferences

  • considerate
  • honest
  • dependable
  • kind
  • understanding
  • fond of children
  • well liked
  • good earning capacity
  • ambitious and career oriented
  • good family backround
  • tall
• buss and barnes results

  male marital preferences

  • physically attractive
  • good looking
  • good cook
  • frugal
• sex differences and attraction - buss and barnes: study 2: unmarried couples

  • replicate study 1
  • 100 unmarried couples aged 18 -23 (expected to have less traditional vaues)
  • asked to rank 13 characteristics for most and least desired mate characteristic
• theories of relationships

  • close relationships are central to human functioning
  • reinforcement theory
  • social economic theories
  • social exchange theories
  • social equity theory
• reinforcement-affect theory - byrne and clore

  • behavioural learning theory: reinforcement approach based on human nature's desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain
  • we learn to associate positive feelings with people that reward us (reinforcement)
  • we like people who reward us and make us feel good
• social exchange theory

  how do people weigh up costs and rewards in a relationship?

  • behaviourist approach incorporates interaction between people and situation
  • cost-reward ratio in relationships
  • what will it cost me to get a positive reward from this person
  • rewards: be with someone who likes me, physically attractive, closeness, commitment
  • cost: time, emotional turmoil
• social exchange theory

  • minimise costs, maximise benefits
• social exchange theory: is this relationship profitable to me?

  • develops over time by comparing previous outcomes with current costs and benefits
  • the theory takes into account:
  • differences between people (e.g. you might think liking same music is important, others may not)
  • differences within people can change over time and across different contexts (you like company, but prefer shopping on own)
• SET: comparison level for alternative relationships

  • if the outcome now > my previous outcomes
  • i am satisfied and will stay in the relationship OR
  • i might decide to terminate this relationship if there is a better alternative that offers me better outcomes
• SET: comparison level for alternative relationships

  • i am dissatisfied but will remain in relationship
  • OR
  • i might terminate this relationship if I have a better alternative that offers me better rewards
• social equity theory

  • a sub theory of social exchange theory; based on social norms of fairness and justice
• social equity theory:

  • equity: people who work hard and put effort, get rewarded
  • people strive for 'equity' in their relationships; where both partners see the ratio of inputs (efforts) to outcomes (rewards) to be the same for each one of them
• social equity theory:

  • exchanges should be 'fair and just' (rather than profit makng) and proportionate with effort
  • people make judgements as to whether exchanges are fair or not and they act accordingly
• social equity theory

  • principles of distributive justice: rewards from exchanges should be proportional to the costs one puts into creating a satisfying relationship
• social equity theory

  • iif ratios of effort and reward are equal, people feel treated fairly. unequal ratio = feeling of unfairness
  • disproportionate costs and rewards in exchanges is likely to result in distress and dissatisfaction in the relationship over time
• what factors help to maintain a relationshio

  • commitment
  • attraction
  • satisfaction
• relationship commitment - arriaga and agnew

  • conducted 2 longitudinal studies on dating couples relationships
  • relationship commitment is a multidimensional construct with 3 distinct components:
  • (1) Psychological attachment
  • (2) Long-term orientation
  • (3) Intention to persist
• relationship commitment Arriaga

  1. psychological attachment : To the relationship (affective component)
• relationship commitment - arriaga

  2) long-term orientation : Caring for the relationship, trust and strong belief that it will remain intact into the distant future (cognitive component)
• relationship commitment -arriaga

  3) intention to persist: Working, persisting in the relationship (conative component; action)
• relationship commitment - arriaga

  • both studies found that long term orientation was a particularly important component of commitment in dating relationships
• relationship commitment arriaga

  • having good relationship comprises psychological attachment, long term commitment, trust and working on keeping the relationship
• relationship commitment

  relationship maintenance depends on three factors:

  1. personal dedication: positive attraction to a particular partner
  2. moral commitment: sense of obligation, religious duty, social responsibility (in line with moral principles)
  3. constraint commitment: lack alternatives, costly to leave relationship (social and financial investments)
• physical attractiveness and relationship satisfaction: eastwick

  • measured preferences by self-reported questionnaire (how important is physical attractiveness) + behaviour (actual mate choice after speed dating)
  • findings:
  • men and women differed in their preferences, but not in their behaviour
  • partner attractiveness did not predict actual mate choice
• physical attractiveness and marital satisfaction - meltzer

  study rationale: research needs to examine satisfaction also in martial relationships over time due to changes over time