Family Diversity

• (diversity in the family is exaggerated) What did Functionalist Parsons say about this?

  He argues that despite claims of increasing diversity, the NF remains the dominant structure - it is best suited to meet society’s needs.

  • NF performs two essential functions:
  • Primary socialisation of children
  • Stabilisation of adult personalities
  • Parsons’ functional fit theory states that family structures change only when society’s needs change (e.g., the shift from extended to nuclear families during industrialisation). However, no major shift has replaced the nuclear family’s role today.
• (diversity in the family is exaggerated) What did Functionalist Chester say about this?

  He argues that the NF remains the norm, even if its structure has slightly changed. He introduces the idea of the neo-conventional family. (new family): for eg;

  • Most people still live in a household based on a two-parent model, even if both parents work ( differs from the traditional male breadwinner model).
  • The life cycle argument – people may experience different family types at different stages in life (e.g., cohabitation before marriage), but most settle into a nuclear family structure.
  • 66% Uk- NF
• (diversity in the family is exaggerated) What did New Right Benson say about this?

  he argues that the nuclear family is the most stable structure and that family diversity (e.g., cohabitation, single-parent households) leads to instability and social problems.

  • he found that the breakup rate for unmarried parents was 20% within three years, compared to 6% for married couples.
  • He argues that marriage encourages commitment and stability, whereas cohabitation increases the risk of family breakdown.
  • The New Right blames state benefits for encouraging single-parent families
• (diversity in the family is exaggerated) What did Feminist – Brannen say about this?


  she challenges the idea that diversity is exaggerated by highlighting how the beanpole family has become increasingly common due to ageing populations and changing social structures.

  • the beanpole family consists of strong intergenerational ties (eg grandparents supporting with informal childcare and financially, grandchildren giving emotional support and care).
  • argues that although NF remain the norm, their function has shifted, young looks after old
• (family is more diverse today) Postmodernism – Rapports

  argue that family diversity is increasing in contemporary society and should be seen as a positive development, rather than a decline in family life. They identify five types of diversity: (CLOGS)

  Less than 50% of UK households are nuclear families, showing an increase in diversity.

  Increase in same-sex families, cohabitation, and lone-parent families suggests a shift away from traditional norms
• What is the term used to describe the diversity of family structures today?

  Postmodernism
• What does organisational diversity in families refer to?

  Differences in family structure types
• How do cultural differences affect family structures?

  Different ethnic and religious groups have distinct structures
• Which type of family structure are Asian families more likely to have?

  Extended families
• How does social class diversity influence family structures?

  Structures vary depending on income and occupation
• What is life-stage diversity in family types?

  Family type changes based on life stages
• What is a common family arrangement for young adults?

  They often cohabit
• How do generational views differ regarding family life?

  Older people may see marriage as essential
• What is a trend among younger generations regarding family structures?

  Younger generations embrace cohabitation
• (family is more diverse today) Connectedness Thesis – Carol Smart

  Smart challenges the individualisation thesis and argues that people’s choices in relationships are influenced by social connections, rather than being completely free.

  • Decisions about relationships are shaped by existing connections, such as family obligations, financial constraints, and cultural expectations.
  • For example, divorced parents remain connected through shared children, meaning their relationship does not end completely.
• (family is more diverse today) Feminist – Judith Stacey

  She argues that family structures are no longer fixed, and women, in particular, are shaping family diversity through their choices. She introduces the concept of the "divorce-extended family", where individuals remain connected even after divorce.

  for eg:

  Women are increasingly rejecting traditional gender roles and forming new family arrangements based on their needs (e.g., cohabitation, single motherhood, blended families).
• (family is more diverse today) Feminist – Lorraine Green

  She argues that family experiences are shaped by gender, class, and ethnicity, rather than assuming a one-size-fits-all nuclear family model.

  for eg:

  • Different social groups experience family life differently. For example:
  • Middle-class women may have more career opportunities and delay marriage.
  • Working-class women may experience financial pressures that shape their family choices.
• (family is more diverse today) Individualisation Theory – Beck-Gernsheim

  She argues that family life has become more individualised, meaning people prioritise personal freedom over traditional family roles.

  for eg;

  Increase in cohabitation shows that people no longer follow a fixed family structure

  Rising acceptance of same-sex relationships and blended families indicates that traditional nuclear families are no longer the only option.
• (family is more diverse today) Individualisation Theory – Giddens

  he argues that relationships are now based on "pure relationships", meaning people stay in relationships out of choice, not obligation

  for eg

  • Romantic relationships today are based on love, happiness, and personal fulfilment, rather than social duty.
  • Criticism of traditional marriage: Giddens argues that in the past, marriage was held together by external pressures (religion, social expectations). Today, relationships end if they no longer provide emotional satisfaction.
• (family is more diverse today) Individualisation Theory – Ulrich Beck

  he argues that we live in a "risk society", where traditional family roles have broken down, leading to more diverse family structures.

  for eg

  • the negotiated family – Families today adapt based on individual needs, rather than following fixed roles.
  • Women’s increased financial independence has reduced reliance on traditional marriages.
  • Example: The rise of single-person households (which make up 30% of UK households) shows how people are choosing different ways of living.
• Causes of Divorce:


  • Changes in the law making divorce easier/more accessible
  • Secularisation (people becoming less religious)
  • Financial Independance for women (equal pay act, more women working so do not have to financially depend on their husbands)
  • Dual burden / Triple Shift
  • support for single parent families from the welfare state
  • Increased life expectancy
  • Higher expectations of marriage
• (impact of divorce - Reconstituted Families) what did De’ath and Slater say is BAD about this?

  Found tensions can arise between step-parents and children or between siblings and step-siblings if the remarried couple have a child of their own
• (impact of divorce - Reconstituted Families) what did Allen et al say is BAD about this?

  Step siblings may conflict with each other in blended families. Stepchildren can also have problems with accepting the authority of the step parent, especially if they are still in contact with their natural parent.
• (impact of divorce - Reconstituted Families) what did Ferri and Smith say is GOOD about this?

  The bond between the step parent and the stepchild can be very positive, so it’s important not to over generalise
• (impact of divorce - Single Parent Families) what did the New Right say is BAD about this?

  Think that the SPF has been endorsed and encouraged by perverse incentives (benefits) that have been provided by the state in recent years. They argue that young women are choosing to have children outside of marriage to access the overgenerous benefits system.
• (impact of divorce - Single Parent Families) what did the Mooney et al say is GOOD about this?

  Disagree with the new eye and argue that parental conflict is more detrimental to child development than parental separation. Being raised by a single parent might provide more stability rather than two parents who are in conflict.
• (impact of divorce - Single Parent Families) what did the Burghen + Brown say is GOOD about this?

  Studied 31 single mothers who had been teenagers when they got pregnant. Most of the pregnancies were accidental and kept them due to strong anti-abortion views. They found it hard but enormous joy too. Although most were on benefits, they stated an ambition to return to education, training or employment. Once the children were in education.
• What did Gingebread (the company) find out about lone parent families?

  Lone parent families have nearly twice the rate of poverty compared to couple families. The majority have low income and gingerbread points out that they are more likely to rely on benefits and more likely to live in social housing.

  Another issue about loan parent families is a psychological and social effect on children raised in such families. Studies have shown that children in these families, so for more psychological problems and experience, less social success than the other children.
• Reasons of marriage, declining:

  • First Marriage failing
  • Changing attitudes (less pressure to marry)
  • Secularisation (people being less religious)
  • Declining stigma to alternatives (cohabitation, SPF etc is widely acceptEd)
  • Changes in position of women (women are more economically dependant)
  • Fear of divorce
• Explain some cultural differences towards marriage

  • arrange managers in south Asian families- they practice arranged managers which tend to have the lowest divorce rates
  • African Caribbean families have higher rates of single parent household and interracial marriages
  • Western societies and secularisation - marriage rates have declined due to greater acceptance of cohabitation and individual choice
  • White British families have much lower marriage rates and higher divorce rates compared to other ethnic groups
  • Decline in marriage among young people
• Explain some theories towards marriage

  • functionalist (parsons) argues that marriage provides primary socialisation for children and stabilises adult personality
  • New right (Murray) believes that traditional marriage prevents family, breaks out and reduces reliance on welfare benefits
  • Post modernism - (Giddens) suggest marriage is based on pure relationships, meaning it only continues if it remains fulfilling
  • Feminist (Stacey) manage is no longer necessary because women have greater choice in relationship
  • Individualistic Theory (Beck) so people can now make their own decisions
• What are some reasons for cohabitation?

  • Decline in stigma.
  • Fear of divorce
  • Increased financial independence
  • Trial before marriage
  • Secularisation
• What are some research evidence about cohabitation?

  • ONS (2021) found that there were 3.6 million cohabiting couples in the UK, making it the fastest growing family type
  • Morgan (2000) found that cohabiting couples are more likely to separate than married, couples suggesting marriage still provides stability
  • ONS (2019) found that non-religious people are more likely to go habit than those were the religious beliefs, showing how secularisation influences family patterns
• Explain some theorists views on cohabitation

  • post modernism (Giddens) cohabitation is based on pure relationships, a couple stay together, only if it remains fulfilling
  • Individualisation (Beck) suggest people weigh the risks and benefits of marriage,
  • Feminism (Stacey) women are more likely to cohabit instead of marrying to reject those traditional gender roles
  • New Right (Murray) cohabitation as a threat to the nuclear family, leading to family breakdown
  • Functionalism (Chester) argues that most cohabiting couples do event is not replacing marriage, but it’s just part of the course
• What are the problems with divorce statistics?

  • They do not show the number of people who are separated, but not divorced
  • They do not show the number of people who live in empty shell marriages
  • They do not show how many unhappy unstable marriages existed before divorce was made easier
• What Study did Bhatti do? - British Asian Families and Social Change

  In-depth interviews are 50 British Asian families living in a town in southern England. 44 families were Muslim with Pakistani or Bangladeshi backgrounds, 6 were Indian
• What findings did Bhatti get? - British Asian Families and Social Change

  There was a continuing emphasis on loyalty to the family, and maintain traditional practices related to the marriage. Family honour was taken very seriously with an emphasis on the behaviour of daughters. Mothers saw their role as being very important as father saw their responsibility in terms of the traditional breadwinner.

  However Bhatti did find some evidence of conflict between the younger generations, in four of the families, the older brother had married, an English
• What did Berthoud find about British Black Caribbean’s

  • much lower rates of marriage than other ethnic group
  • Similar fertility rates to white British people
  • Relatively high rates of lone parenthood
  • High rates of mixed marriage
• What did Berthoud find about British South Asian families?

  • relatively traditional family life.
  • High rates of marriage and low rates of divorce
  • High fertility rates
  • Very few cohabit outside of marriage
  • Pakistani and Bangladeshi wives are more likely to be full-time homemakers
  • Arrange marriages are common
• What did Berthoud find about White British families?

  • Low marriage rates.
  • Low fertility rates
  • Marriage outside of the ethnic group as relatively uncommon
  • Arranged marriages of virtually non-existent
  • Unlikely to live with parents after marriage
  • Quite high divorce rates