unit three

• Divisions within the CCP- At the end of the GLF, Mao was removed from politics and spent his time in the Forbidden City with only bodyguards and servants. His wife, Jiang Qing, had separate quarters and Mao barely saw her or old colleagues. Deng and Liu were running the country and Mao began to distrust his old friends. Zhou had been critical of targets in the GLF, as had Liu. Pragamtism was the new system that threatened his revolutionary vision. He was also jealous of their economic success, dividing the party between revolutionaries and pragmatists.
• Personal slights- Mao also was angered by perceived slights. In a report by the CCP's propaganda department, they warned against Mao's writings to explain victories and Liu stopped the Thought of Mao being used. They thought Leninism-Marxism should be more important. Mao complained he was treated as a 'dead ancestor'.
• Ideologues vs Pragmatists- Mao wanted a true communist nation through mobilisation of the masses and the constant revolution. Those who opposed this were capitalist roaders as they didn't agree with his interpretation of communism. His supporters included Jiang Qing and Lin Biao (PLA leader). Pragmatists like Zhou, Liu and Deng wanted slower pace towards communism to avoid mistakes like the GLF. They wanted experts and educated bureaucrats to help economic planning to communism and to 'seek truth from facts' (empiricism).
• The quest for permanent revolution- Mao thought the CCP was no longer a force for change so wanted to launch the Cultural Revolution. He feared the party had become bureaucratic and cadres were exploiting power. The cadres had become the new elite with luxuries and the only way to prevent this was permanent revolution to stop them becoming comfortable with these lives. The CCP had to rid themselves of revisionists who wanted to change the communist ideology.
• The Ten Points- In 1962, Mao launched the Socialist Education Campaign with the Ten Points to mobilise the masses to criticise corrupt cadres. He organised the Four Clean Ups: the economy, organisation, politics and ideology all should be cleansed of non-communist ideas. Peasants and workers were told to criticise party leaders who were becoming bureaucratic. They studied his works and denounced officials as capitalist roaders in struggle meetings. Liu reviewed these policies to de-emphasise class struggle and Mao blamed the failure to inspire revolt on him.
• Supporters and opponents- Mao wanted to rid the party of opponents but Liu, Deng and Zhou were popular due to the success of their policies and Mao had to be subtle. When Wu Han wrote the pkay 'Hai Rui dismissed from office' Mao attacked him as it was an allegory of Mao's time as active leader. He organised a negative review to be published and as deputy mayor of Beijing, Wu Han resigned, alongside the actual mayor. This removed 2 key allies of Liu and Deng, making their power weaker.
• The Cultural Revolution Group- Formed in 1966 by Mao as a sub-committee of the politburo containing Chen Boda (propaganda chief) and Jiang Qing (Mao's wife). During the CR, they ran the cultural policy and created criticism of the main party, removing their authority. The counter-revolutionaries targeted in the party's journal, The Red Flag, were Liu and Deng. The CR Group later became known as the Gang of Four and attempted to seize power after Mao's death.
• Launching the CR- In 1966, Mao swam in the dangerous Yangtze River which was a highly publicised event. Propaganda claimed that 72 year old Mao swam 9 miles in 65 minutes. The claim was crazy but spread the idea that Mao was fit and strong, emerging again to reclaim his political power. In August, Mao directed the Central Committee to announce the 16 point directive on the Cultural Revolution that called for a new stage of the revolution.
• Mao's hold on young people- The appreciation for communism was replaced early on in the regime with a cult of personality which Mao justified. The most likely to believe the cult were young people who were told to target Mao's enemies as 'freaks and monsters'. They were indoctrinated through education and because they hadn't witnessed the famine, they still supported Mao. The Little Red Book was widely read and Mao told them to rise up against authority so millions joined the revolution.
• Why did young join the Red Guards- Many joined for different reasons but often were children of party cadres. Mao first mobilised the elite middle schools and gave them the chance to join revolutionary glory. Pragmatic careerism also played a part as students could get rid of party leaders that hindered their chances of getting into the CCP. The children of 'black elements' whose parents were enemies of the regime weren't allowed to join at first but later joined to show their loyalty.
• The cult of Mao- The CR created obsessions with Mao, especially amongst the Red Guards. One factory in Beijing asked a portrait Mao for instructions each day and would report back to him in the evening. The radical ritual was sent to Mao who made it policy across China. Mao's work was referred to as 'treasure books' and passengers at train stations had to perform a loyalty dance before boarding their trains. Mao's thoughts were equivalent to the word of God. Mao had become a divine idol and the people's devotion to him meant that when he encouraged them to purge his enemies, they did.
• Mass rallies- Mao created a character poster in 1966 calling for people to 'Bombard the Headquarters'. He wanted the bureaucratic party leaders purged, alongside the pragmatists that challenged him. He called people to Beijing for 8 mass rallies organised by Chen Boda. In Tiananmen Square, young people were transported to rally by the PLA. They wore Mao badges and held their Little Red Books. They hoped to see their hero as they'd been indoctrinated by propaganda. A Red Guard called Song Binbin even put a Red Guard armband on Mao showing he supported the movement.
• The Four Olds- In August 1966, Mao launched an attack on old customs, culture, ideas and habits which he claimed were still being used by the elite. The CCP claimed the old ideology and culture poisoned minds and a new ideology needed to be created to stop bureacracy. Places and objects that represented old ideas were attacked by the Red Guards. Restaurants made visitors declare their class origin before eating and a pet bird roused Red Guard suspicion as it was a traditional pet. They wanted to make red traffic lights mean Go but Zhou stopped them. There were little limits on their actions.
• Cultural destruction- Temples were desecrated with statues and artefacts deface and burned because they represented religious beliefs. The homes of those who owned traditional or Western media or art were ransacked. Confucian texts were burned and Zhou sent the PLA to protect the Forbidden City antiques. By the end of the Cultural Revolution, 1/3 of libraries had been closed and 7 million library books lost, stolen or destroyed.
• Confucius temple in Shandong- The priceless cultural relic of a temple and resting place of Confucius was attacked by 200 students from Beijing. Chen Boda encouraged them to thoroughly destroy it. They ruined 6618 artefacts including 929 paintings, 2700 books and 2000 graves being defaced. Other Red Guards criticised them for not demolishing it enough with not enough mobilisation of the masses.
• Hai Rui's burial site and Wu Xan- The subject of Wu Han's play that sparked the CR, Hai Rui, rested in an ancient burial site. This was defaced. Wu Xan, a 19th century cultural hero, was declared elitist and his corpse was exhumed from his Beijing grave. Middle school students broke the corpse into pieces and burned them. The Red Guards also filmed their destruction of Buddhist staties and their burning of a monastery.
• Tibet- Religious artefacts in Tibet were targeted by the Red Guards. Long hair was damned as an 'old custom' and ordered to be cut. Local peasants were forced to help attack monasteries and shrines which were looted and destroyed. Buddhist scriptures were ripped up and used as toilet paper. Precious metals, scroll paintings and statues were later sold on the international art market by corrupt officials. The attacks wanted to eradicate all aspects of Tibetan life.
• The use of terror- In the winter of 1966, the Red Guards' violence got out of control. It was known as the Red Terror and party members, former businessmen and landowners were denounced. They had to prove their ideological commitment and 'class enemies' were sent to re-education prison camps. Intellectuals were often kidnapped and killed whilst many committed suicide to avoid prison camps. The playwright, Lao She, had his house burned down by Red Guards and committed suicide after a struggle meeting.
• Terror against party members- Ding Ling had been purged in the Hundred Flowers campaign and was targeted again. She was denounced in struggle meetings and made to stand with her arms behind her back, perpendicular to her legs. At night, she had to sleep in a stable. Zheng Peidi was a teacher in Beijing and found guilty of criticising Jiang Qing. She was confined with her baby in a 'cowshed' on campus.
• The growth of anarchy- Rival groups of Red Guards began to fight and denounce each other. They just wanted to prove their ideological devotion and argued that the original Red Guards were becoming their own elite in their excessive power. China stood on the edge of a civil war and Mao found it difficult to control the anarchy as he had encouraged it. Although Mao consistently supported the anarchy, when they called to abolish the party, he demanded the commune in Shanghai to be closed down.
• 'January Storm'- In early 1967, radical Red Guards made up of unprivileged workers in the city destroyed the party establishment in Shanghai. On 30th December 1966, 100000 of those radical Red Guards defeated 20000 other Red Guards (known as Scarlet Guards). The scarlet Guards had been mobilised by the local CCP and when the radical Guards won, they were subject to the same violence and torture that they inflicted on others. At first, Mao applauded their seizure of power but then closed the commune in 1967.
• The February adverse current- The radicals and the CCP had not understood Mao's motives for the CR. He didn't want to destroy the party, just removed the leaders that he believed were preventing him from instigating the correct policies like Liu and Deng. 'Bombard the Headquarters' only referred to his rivals. When others spoke out against him and his encouragement of chaos, Mao accused them of being 'the February adverse current' that flowed against the correct tide of revolutionary upheval.
• Further violence- In April of 1967, Mao encouraged more violence, leading the Red Guards into battles with the PLA. In Wuhan, the army had sided with the CCP organisation and attempted to defend it from the Red Guards. The PLA had arrested 500 Red Guard leaders in the Spring for attack the party. This led to protests and hunger strikes alongside armed clashes between the RGs and PLA.
• Further violence 2- The PLA killed 1000 protestors and when members of government criticised this brutality, the PLA supporters kidnapped them and only released them when the military arrived. Rebels also took over the Foreign Ministry in Beijing for 2 weeks. Only the PLA prevented the Red Guards from seizing the military base where China's hydrogen bomb was being created.
• Revolutionary committees- By September 1967, Mao was concerned the anarchy was leading to a challenge of the legitimacy of the Party. He called for the creation of revolutionary committees that created a three-way alliance between the party, state and army. The Party would remain dominant and organisations and radicals were represented too. Radicals only had token representation and previous leaders re-emerged from to take control of these committees and re-establish their power.
• Restoration of order by the PLA- In 1968, Mao knew he had to stop the violence as he was worried other nations would see the disorder and try and attack China. He wanted the CCP in control and the PLA was the only way to crush the RGs. They ruthlessly crushed the radicals and the Cultural Revolution Group launched a campaign to 'cleanse the class ranks'. The PLA used surveillance, mass rallies and struggle meetings to extract confessions and 1.84 million were arrested. Thousands were imprisoned, beaten to death or committed suicide. In Yunan, one victim had his testicles boiled and eaten.
• End to the violence- The violent phase of the CR ended with the 9th party Congress. Lin Biao was officially declared as Mao's successor and the terror was ended. Many Chinese citizens remained fearful of the state with night terrors, PTSD and unwavering loyalty in case of resurrection of the RGs.
• Liu Shaoqi- Liu's pragmatic policies rebuilt China and made him popular. He didn't agree with the violence of the RGs which Mao saw as traitorous. He was subject to constant struggle meetings where he was abused throughout the CR. His wife was publicly humiliated and children sent to work as peasants in the countryside. In August 1967, Liu wrote to Mao from his confinement in his house, resigning as Head of State. Jiang ordered he be kept alive as a 'living target' and presented evidence of his treachery so he was denounced as a Western spy who gave info to Hong Kong.
• The fate of Liu Shaoqi- Liu was denounced as a 'scab' and an official traitor. He was no longer a threat to Mao, especially as torture had left him unable to speak. His hair had grown a foot in lengteh and was held in an empty, unheated building. When he contracted pneumonia, Mao refused to give him treatment and he died in 1968. He was buried in an unmarked grave.
• Deng Xiaoping- Deng had helped Liu enact economic policies that ignored Mao's advice and were more pragmatic than ideological. Mao complained that Deng never consulted him and accused him of taking the capitalist road in an attempt to set up an 'Independent Kingdom'. Deng was sent to a tractor factory in rural Jiangxi to work and his family suffered too. Deng's son attempted to escape torture by jumping through a window that left him paralysed from the waist down.
• Lin Biao and the role of the PLA- Communist leaders had begun preparing for life after Mao. Mao's hatred of Liu and Deng left other leaders seeking advances on their posititons to take power when Mao died. Lin Biao replaced Peng Dehuai as Minister of Defence when Peng was purged for criticising the GLF. Lin published the Little Red Book and made it compulsory for PLA soldiers to read. It demanded self-sacrifice and reliance, alongside loyalty to Mao. The indoctrination assured Mao that he could depend upon the army's loyalty.
• Purging of the Party membership- about 75% of all party cadres were purged and only 9 out of 23 Politburo members survived the CR. 2/3rds of the Central Committee were deposed and huge numbers were sent to political study: indoctrination and hard labout in the May Seventh Cadre School. They studied Mao's writing whilst being split from their families and completing agricultural work. 3 million bureaucrats were exiled to the countryside and 500000 were estimated to have been killed.
• Purging of Party membership 2- Zhou's plea to 'denounce with words, not violence' was ignored and constant threats continued. The leader of Anhui was driven through Beijing on the back of a truck, beaten and abused. The coal minister wore a 60kg iron hat and was then beaten to death by the RGs. Peng Dehuai was brought back from exile for more struggle meetings and was beaten so badly by jailors that he died of medical neglect in 1974. The numbers of party members killed aren't known but the Gang of Four were charged with legitimising 500000 deaths of CCP officials.
• 'Up to the mountains and down to the villages'- 18 million RGs were sent to cool off in the countryside and learn from the peasants. Schools and unis were closed as part of the rustification campaign that focused on practical experience over education. The peasants were unhappy as they had little spare food and resented having to help the young who had no agricultural work experience. The ideologically devout 'lost generation' became shocked and disillusioned after kids with CCp connections returned to cities whilst many remained in permanent exile.
• The rise of Lin Biao- Lin was Mao's most loyal supporter and encouraged the radicalisation of the CR through publishing the Little Red Book. Lin didn't want the radical movement to end as he feared Zhou would become leader after Mao died. This scared him as Lin had been previously named as Mao's successor in the 9th Party Congress.
• The fall of Lin Biao- Lin attempted to reinstate the role of Head of State, Liu's previous role that Mao didn't want. Mao interpreted this as an attempt for Lin to seize the job and challenge Mao with the PLA and as Head of State. Mao also feared the power and independence of the PLA as they had huge influence after controlling the CR. Of the 29 revolutionary committees set up in 1967, 21 were led by PLA officers. Mao feared a military coup and told the PLA to learn from the people, attempting to reduce their influence (and Lin's power).
• Lin's death- Rumours of Lin attempting to seize power spread and Lin feared he was going to be purged. He fled Mao's security force and got on a plane which, in the panic, had not been fullyy-fuelled. The plane crashed and the whole family was killed. This caused problems for Mao as Lin was portrayed as his closest comrade but then was denounced as a traitor who had worked with the USSR. The people became sceptical of the regime and began to question it for the first time.
• Deng Xiaoping's return to power- Mao's health was poor in the 1970s and he could barely see, speak or walk. He was concerned with the future of the revolution and many of his friends were sick too so couldn't take over. Zhou had lung cancer and his advisers were sick or dead. Mao decided to call Deng back from exile where he had been repairing tractors in Jiangxi. His organisational skills were needed to re-establish the state and in 1975 rejoined the Politburo and became the PLA Chief of Staff.
• Four Modernisations- Deng supported a programme that called for advancement in agriculture, industry, defence and tech. There was a focus on science expertisse and tech development that was a reversal of Mao's policies. Deng understood that the people wanted a return to pragmatism and deflected criticism that he was part of the 'old order' because he restored stability and trust within the people.
• The Gang of Four- Jiang Qing attempted to gain control from Deng in 1973 by launching a gang of 4 campaign, criticising Lin and Confucius. They clained they subverted the revolution and were indirectly targeting Zhou and Deng who were less radical. Jiang thought it would mobilise forces against her rivals for power but it failed and people dismissed it as her attempt to gain power. She was, however, able to remove Deng from the head of the Party.