used lab research using specifically bred animals - problems of generalising across species - selectively damaging precise brain areas carried out on cats and rodents as human brains are more complex
basic structures of the brain are the same between species, so experiments are worthwhile
supports human case studies like Phineas Gage and Blaire et al
Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who suffered a massive brain injury after an iron rod was driven through his head. single case study and may not be representative
Raine et al (1997) found that the hippocampus is involved in the formation of declarative memories, he looked at 41 convicted murderers. he found: