nile valley

• The problem with the Ottoman Empire- The empire seized Egypt in 1517 and expanded its hold in Africa. By the 19th century, the empire was declining which worried Britain. The governing of the empire was the issue as they had to delegate to local leaders because of the empire's size and the rulers then sought more autonomy. The Khedives in Egypt had political freedom and relied on investment from France and Britain to develop their economy.
• The Khedives- From 1863-1870, Egyptian debt grew from £3 million to £100 million. The Khedives went bankrupt in 1876 despite the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869. Britain and France established a system of Dual Control to introduce reforms. They cut army pay, introduced sales tax on food and goods. They reduced interest on foreign debts and attempted to increase revenue.
• Egyptian nationalism- Arabi Pasha was a nationalist officer in the army and led a protest over the new sultan, the Dual Control and army pay. In 1879, he led a coup to stop reforms that would halve army pay and dismiss 2500 soldiers. He forced the new Khedive to appoint a nationalist cabinet that borrowed £400,000 from the Rothschilds to stop army pay cuts. Britain was threatened by this nationalism near their interests and wanted to stop it.
• Protecting European people- Anti-Christian riots in Alexandria threatened the lives of Europeans. 50 Europeans died and the Arabi Pasha supporters were blamed. The British claimed intervention was needed to protect European lives despite having sent boats to claim Alexandria a month before the riots.
• Protecting strategy- Disraeli had purchased 45% of shares in the Suez Canal and France had the other 55%. The Canal provided a shorter route to India and 80% of ships through there were British, proving its necessity. The Anglo-French rivalry continued and France could become too powerful in Africa and the Middle East once the Ottoman Empire had collapsed. The French threatened the Canal and British interests so they wanted to invade.
• Trade- Egypt was a growing market for British exports when the khedives began modernising. Similarly, in 1880, Britain was the main consumer of Egyptian exports at 80%. It was mostly cotton as America was no longer providing cotton during the Civil War tensions. Britain also supplied 44% of Egypt's imports so they wanted to protect the trading relationship between the nations which was being threatened.
• Financial- Bond holders in the City of London were exposed to failures in Egypt through the masses of debt that the khedives had built up. Britain's economy was reliant on the success of bond holders and they were forced to ensure Egypt paid off their debt. Alongside this, many in government had personal fortunes invested like PM Gladstone who had 37% of his fortune in Egyptian loans.
• The Gambetta Note- The Note stated that France and Britain regarded maintaining the khedive's power as the best guarantee for order in Egypt. They thought modernisation would happen under the khedive. It was meant to warn nationalists and Arabi Pasha that they would militarily intervene in Egypt if the khedive's power was threatened. Nationalists responded with creating a natinalist cabinet and threatened to depose of the khedive. The French commitment, however, didn't result in any action.
• Why France didn't intervene in Egypt- Germany had defeated France in 1870 and France had to surrender territory to the military state that Bismarck was creating. Bismarck and other powers issued notes saying Egyptian intervention shouldn't happen without their consent so France couldn't invade and help the British. Gambetta also fell from power so his Note became irrelevant as his successor was less inclined to intervene in Egypt. This signified the French's end of intervention in Egypt and allowed Britian to take over and occupy the region.
• Reasons to occupy Egypt- The pull factors of imperialism motivated them. The Suez Canal and quicker route to India was key to maintain. The bondholders and capital investment from London also encouraged them. Social and economic tensions also pulled them to Egypt due to the poor leadership of the khedive and Egyptian nationalism.
• Veiled protectorate- London effectively controlled Egypt with no legal basis for their presence other than it supposedly been requsted by the Khedive.
• Baring's mission in Egypt- The occupation was supposed to be temporary and they announced their withdrawal 66 times over 40 years but never left. The khedive couldn't make political decisions without the agreement of the British and Brits were appointed to the army and administration to crush the nationalist stronghold. They wanted to reform finance too to ensure stability. Baring was the consul general and wanted change to agricultural infrastructure and governmment. They needed to be in Egypt long-term to succeed this though.
• Emergence of radical Islam in Sudan- The Mahdi in Sudan wanted to drive out English and Ottoman overlords and establish a purer form of Islam. Mahdist forces wiped out 6700 Egyptian troops who had been led by Sir Hicks. This showed London they had lost control of the province. Sudan didn't interest British politicians like Gladstone but because it threatened Egypt, they needed to maintain power. London had no faith in the khedive to remove the Mahdi threat so remained in Egypt to protect their interests.
• British collapse of liberalism- The split of the Liberal Pary led to Conservative dominance and their leader, Salisbury didn't want to leave Egypt and give the French an advantage. He was worried about the Mahdi and agreed with Baring that it would take 15 years to reform Egypt. He wanted to continue to withdraw but ultimately stayed to protect their financial interests in the country.
• Baring's reforms- Evelyn Baring had imperial experience in India and was convinced of British superiority over the 'oriental mind'. He was convinced the future of Egypt rested in developing agriculture and spent a long time on drainage. He implemented more financial controls on Egypt too and set out to reform the administration and culture to secure their economic standing.
• Baring's successes- He controlled finance and cut spending. Britain loaned £9 million which £8 million was used to get Egypt out of debt. Repayment of debt took up half of tax money during Baring's years. £1 million of the loan was spent on irrigation and canal drainage by the Nile flood plains to better agriculture. 1882-1902, 8% of government revenue was devoted to agriculture as well as the budget focusing on military spending to get rid of the Mahdist threat.
• Baring's failures- The inequality of land taxation meant that agricultural development was limited. Investment in education was also limited because Baring thought secondary education wasn't government responsibility. He thought an increase in intellectuals would threaten control, hence he also raised tuition fees in primary schools as to not disrupt the stable society. He underestimated the strength of Egyptian nationalism and believed that Egyptians loved him.
• Problem of Sudan- The Egyptian rulers had created an occupation in Sudan after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Mahdi capitalised on the resentment of Egyptian taxes and authority. General Gordon had been appointed by the khedive to end the slave trade in Sudan but that removed a class that opposed the Mahdi. The economy was then destabilised and the Egyptian army launched many unsuccessful operations against the Mahdi. One operation led to only 300 survivors out of 8000 soldiers showing how powerful the Mahdi had become.
• Gladstone's concerns- Gladstone and Baring feared Sudan could destablise their programme of financial consolidation in Egypt and thought Egypt couldn't rule Sudan effectively. Britain had no strategic interest in Sudan apart from removing the Mahdist threat to Egypt so there was no point occupying it. In 1884, General Gordon organised an evacuation.
• General Gordon's mission in Sudan- He was told to evacuate Khartoum but instead asked London to hand power to an anti-Mahdist popular figure and asked Baring for more troops in the city. When the Mahdi became close to Khartoum, Gordon refused to leave as many hadn't been evacuated yet and fortified the city. A relief team was then needed.
• Failure of Gordon's mission- Gordon smuggled his diaries out of the city which blamed Baring for indulging in the fantasy of the situation. Gordon was also loved by the British public and newspapers called for a relief team. Gladstone eventually sent him relief but it arrived 2 days after Gordon's death. The Mahdist forces had broken through and killed the entire garrison. Gordon's head was presented as a prize to the Mahdi and Gladstone was labelled Murderer of Gordon (MOG) by the press. Gladstone was then defeated in the 1885 election.
• Fears of France- 1890, Britain declared a sphere of influence over the Nile Valley but France didn't recognise this. In 1898, British and French armed forces met where their interests intersected- Fashoda. A 120-man French force against Kitchener's 1500-man force met because Kitchener had been told by Salisbury to establish British claim there. He allowed French flags to fly and they had whisky, champagne and soda. London and Paris were left to negotiate and London's naval superiority meant France dropped their claim to the land.
• The Conquest of Sudan (1898)- Salisbury ordered a campaign to secure the source of the Nile as the Scramble for Africa led the French closer and the Mahdi still posed a threat to British interests. Kitchener had been part of Gordon's relief and hated the Mahdi. His campaign was methodical and used modern gunboats and railways. He defeated the Mahdi's forces and killed him in Omdurman. In Khartoum, he held a memorial for Gordon and cut the Mahdi's head off so it wouldn't become a place for pilgrimage.
• Omdurman- 2nd September 1898. Kitchener had the maxim gun, the first fully automated machine gun with a swift rate of fire. 10,000 Mahdist supporters died and 5000 were wounded. Only 47 British troops died and 382 were wounded. Churchill criticised Kitchener and his brutality in the campaign. The contrast between the treatment of the Mahdi and the French at Fashoda shows the treatment of different races and the cultural superiority that Westerners felt.