(10) Self Report Techniques + Design

• in some psychological research, participants in an experiment will be asked to self report their symptoms/ behaviour
• when participants self report, they are asked questions and are expected to answer - simplest way to gather information about behaviour especially if it is not displayed at all times
• Self report Technique = any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and or experiences related to a given topic
• the two types of self report methods are :

  • questionnaires
  • interviews
• Questionnaires :

  • a set of written questions used to asses a person's thoughts/ experiences
• Interviews :

  • a 'live' encounter - either face to face or on the phone
  • the interviewer asks a set of questions to asses an interviewees thoughts and or experiences
• in structured interviews the questions are pre set
• in unstructured interviews the questions develop as the interview goes along usually to gain better understanding/ more depth of information
• Questionnaires :

  • involve a pre set list of writte questions - participants must respond to
  • used to asses inner thought/ feelings
  • my be used as part of an experiment to asses the dependent variable
• Open Questions :

  • does not have a fixed range of answers + respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
  • tend to produce qualitative data - rich in detail but may be difficult to analyse
• Closed Questions :

  • offers a fixed number of responses
  • may restrict them to two options (yes or no) - qualitative data
  • can get them to rate something (1 to 10) - quantitative data
  • produces qualitative data but can be turned into quatitative data by counting the number of yeses and noes
  • quantitative data is easy to analyse - may lack depth and detailed associated with open Qs
• EVALUATIONS of Questionnaires

  Strength :

  • are cost effective
  • can gather large amounts of data quickly - can be distributed to large numbers of people (population validity)
  • it is the number of people that is important as this determines the volume of data collected
  • can be completed without the researcher being present (postal questionnaires) - reduces the effort involved
  • data is usually straightforward to analyse - especially if questionnaires comprises mainly fixed choice closed Qs
  • allows statistical analysis - can produce graphs/charts
• EVALUATION of Questionnaires

  Limitations :

  • responses given may not always be truthful
  • could result in the demand characteristic : social desirability bias
  • Respondents keen to present themselves in a positive light - influences their answers
  • may produce response bias - respondents tend to reply in similar way (eg always ticking yes)
  • may be because respondents complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read questions properly - acquiescence bias
• Acquiesence Bias :

  • 'yea-saing'
  • tendency to agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question
• Jackson and Messick (1961) :

  • demonstrated acquiescence bias using F scale (questionnaire that measured AP)
  • created a reversed version of the F scale - all items were the opposite meaning to the original questionnaire
  • gave both original + reversed versions to the same group of respondents - found a strong positive correlation between two sets of results
• Interviews :

  • most interviews are face to face interactions between interviewer and interviewee
  • some interactions may be conducted over the phone
• the two types of interview are :

  • structured interview
  • unstructured interview

  (semi structured interviews)
• Unstructured Interviews :

  • works like a conversation
  • are no set questions
  • there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed
  • interactions tend to be free flowing
  • interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers as prompted by the interviewer
• Semi Structured interviews :

  • most interviews fall somewhere between structured and unstructured interviews
  • most likely to encounter this type of interview in everyday life - eg job interviews
  • a list of questions are worked out in advance but researcher is free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate
• EVAKUATION of Structured Interviews

  Strength :

  • are straightforward to replicate due to the standardised format - structuralism
  • format reduces differences between interviewers
• EVALUATION of Structured Interviews

  Strength :

  • not possibl for interviewer to deviate from the topic or elaborate their points
  • may be a source of frustration for some
  • less detail in peoples answers - less information gathered
• EVALUATION of Unstructured Interviews

  Strength :

  • there is much more flexibility in unstructured than structured interview
  • interviewer can follow up points as they arise
  • interviewer much more likely to gain insight into the worldview of the interviewee
• EVALUATION of Unstructured Interviews

  Limitations :

  • analysis of data is not straightforward
  • researcher may have to sift through much irrelevant information and drawing firm conclusions may be difficult
  • risk that the interviewee may lie for reasons of social desirability
  • BUT. skilled/ experienced interviewer must be able to establish sufficient rapport with the participant
  • when sensitive and personal topics are discussed, responses given are more truthful
• Likert Scale :

  • the respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale of usually five points
  • scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree
• Rating Scales :

  • gets respondents to identify a value that represent their strength of feeling about a particular topic
• Fixed Choice Option :

  • includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them
• the three different questionnaire designs are :

  • likert scales
  • rating scales
  • fixed choice option
• Designing Interviews :

  • involves an interview schedule - list of Qs that the interviewer tends to cover
  • should be standardised for each participant to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias
  • interviewer may take notes during the interview or record the interview and analyse the data later
  • usually involves interviewer and single participant - group interviews appropriate in clinical (medical) settings
• what must and interviwer ensure is involved when designing an interview ?

  -should conduct the interview in a quiet room - away from other people as this will increase the likelihood the interviewee will open up (one to one)

  -interview should begin with neutral Qs to make participants feel relaxed and comfortable

  -interviewee should be reminded their answers will be treated in the strictest confidence (ethical issues) - especially important if topics are personal or sensitive
• Writing Good Questions :

  • need clarity
  • if respondent are confused or misinterpret particular Qs, can have a negative impact on the quality of the information received
• Things that should be avoided when writing good Qs are :

  • oversue of jargon
  • emotive language and leading questions
  • double barrelled questions and double negatives
• Overuse of Jargon :

  • jargon = only familiar to those within a specialised field or area
  • complex questions
  • may be too confusing and unnecessary
• Emotive Language and Leading Questions :

  • authors attitude towards a topic is clear from the way in which the questions is phrased
  • use emotive language (strong adjectives)
  • emotive words should be replaced with more neutral alternatives
  • leading questions guide the respondents towards a particular answer
• Double barrelled Questions + Doouble Negatives :

  • double barrelled Qs = contain two questions in one - issue is respondents may agree with one half of the question but not with the other
  • double negative = questions difficult for the respondents to decipher - much more straightforward ways of asking questions