gender

• dominance theory - Schulz and Lakoff


  examine language use in respect to men being more dominant. '-ess' suffix marks out a feminine equivalent. semantic derogation - words have gained negative connotations, mistress which has connotation of prostitution
• stanley - dominance theory 


  found there were 220 insults to describe a promiscuous woman vs 20 for a promiscuous man.

  asked people on street how they describe a girl/man who slept with 30 men/girls. both men and women said the women is 'slag'. said man is a 'lad'
• janet holmes - dominance theory 


  which women are referred to in affectionate nominatives (names). noted that the nominates used for women were predominantly from the semantic fields of food and animals 'sugar, honey, bitch, cow'
• dale Spencer - dominance theory 


  believes there is a culture of 'male as norm' which men are the dominant models and women are add-ones. men are almost always introduced first and women are not. symbolic of their lesser role
• interruptions - Zimmerman and west (1975)


  men interrupted 96%-100% more times. only studied a small number of subjects all who were white - middle class men under the age of 35.

  criticism - not a representative sample and therefore not necessarily investigating what they thought they were
• interruptions - beatties


  research is based on a much larger and representative corpus and is more likely to be more accurate then Zimmerman and west
• Pamela fisherman - interruptions 


  research discovered that conversations between men and women often fail because of how men act. details that men use a third of the number of questions as women and gave minimal responses. women doing the conversational 'shitwork'
• deficit theory - Otto Jaspersen (1922)


  states that women's language is weak. investigated fillers and pauses. details that women speak without thinking and so use more non-fluency features. his research relies on evidence from literature and travellers, means his research is speculative and often dismissed as folk linguistics
• onnela - deficit theory 


  disputes jespersons research. onnela found that with masters students there was a very similar MLU ( mean length of utterance - the average time span pf a piece of speech)
• deficit theory - robin Lakoff


  popularised by robin Lakoff in 1975. research details a list of features of spoken language that makes women's language weak. hypercorrect grammar, over-apologising, empty adjectives, tag questions, overuse of intensifiers, special lexicon, less swearing, lacking a sense of humour
• O'Barr and Atkins - deficit theory 


  looked at a courtroom and found lower-class men use Lakoff's features in court. their research implies that it is potentially not to do with gender but power. 'powerless language'. Lakoff's research is based purely on her own observation and not any rigorous testing
• deficit further challenged

  in 2017 research published by the 'economic and social research council' discovered that there has been a 500% increase in the use 'fuck' by women since the 1990's
• difference theory - Deborah tennen


  men and women are just simply different. she defined 6 clear continuums of difference between genders. advice v understanding, orders v proposals, status v support, information v feelings, independence v intimacy, conflict v compromise
• Jennifer coates - difference theory 


  research all male and all female groups and states they converse differently. techniques used by women to maintain conversation are signs of intelligence
• Deborah jones - difference theory 


  researched gossiping amongst women and class this 'house talk'. scandal - discuss behaviour of others. bitching - expression of anger just as a relief. chatting - intimate form of gossiping
• Deborah Cameron - difference 


  she built on the work of Deborah jones. she says that girls bitch because covertly dominant behaviour is more acceptable for women
• difference model - men 


  Kate millet's research states that 'the tone and ethos of mens house culture is sadisitc, power-oriented, and latently homosexual. frequently narcissistic in its energy and motives'
• kuiper - difference model (men)


  kuiper's research details that men use more insults and expletives (swearing)
• Pilkington - difference (men)


  research looks at the way a 'locker-room banter' is created within all male groups. he found that insults were part of this culture and created bonds
• diversity model - valentova and havlicek


  looked at wether or not someone could tell a mans sexuality based on their aesthetics and voice. participants stated that there was a certain femininity in the voice of a homosexual man
• diversity model - William leap 


  lavender linguistics - describes a sociolect of homosexuals. believes homosexuals interact with heterosexuals and with other homosexuals differs.
• Judith butler - performativity 


  you construct your gender based on how you behave and the language you used. your language linguistically determines you