P5

• Each crisis in Erikson’s theory involves a balance between a positive and a negative outcome, and the outcome affects the person’s identity and well-being
• Loevinger’s ego development theory suggests that adult development is a process of increasing differentiation and integration of the ego, which is the part of the self that mediates between the inner and outer worlds
• Social responses to aging are the attitudes, behaviors, and policies that affect older adults in society, such as stereotypes, discrimination, and support
• Levinson's theory emphasizes gender differences, including men facing a midlife crisis around 40 and women experiencing a midlife transition around 50; men having a single focused dream usually related to career and women having complex and multifaceted dream which may include both work and family; men focusing on generativity and creating and guiding next generation while women focusing on individuation and developing their own identity and potentia
• Levinson's theory has been criticized for its small and biased sample of 40 white, middle-class and well-educated men; lack of generalizability to women, ethnic minorities and lower-class; overemphasis on crises in adult development; suggests that every adult goes through a series of predictable and universal transitions that involve questioning and changing their life structure
• Confirmation bias, the tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs, influences social responses to aging
• Levy et al. (2018) found that higher confirmation bias led to increased perception of age discrimination among older adults, affecting self-esteem, life satisfaction, and health outcomes
• North and Fiske (2013) showed that confirmation bias influenced younger managers to rate older workers negatively, impacting perceptions of competence, adaptability, and suitability for promotion based on stereotypes of older adults
• The Double Standard of Aging refers to the differential impact of aging on women and men. Women are often judged primarily by their faces, while men are seen as a whole. This double standard penalizes women more heavily for changes in physical appearance, reinforcing societal beauty norms
• Attachment Theory suggests that early attachment experiences shape an individual's approach to social relationships throughout their lives. Older adults with secure attachment styles are more likely to maintain positive social relationships, while those with insecure attachment styles may face challenges in maintaining connections
• The Positive Psychology of Aging focuses on the strengths, resilience, and growth potential of older adults. It emphasizes fostering positive social interactions, promoting social engagement, and cultivating a sense of purpose and meaning in life as essential elements for positive aging experiences
• The Life Course Perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of an individual's life experiences and their impact on aging. It suggests that social roles and relationships are shaped by a combination of life events, social context, and personal characteristics. Life events prompt reconstruction and renewal of social roles and relationships, influencing aging trajectories differently across individuals
• Social Identity Theory (SIT) explains how individuals attach themselves to social groups and view themselves and others within those groups. In the context of ageism, individuals in the young age group may eventually move to the older age group. SIT suggests three ways to handle this transition: social mobility (remaining in the young group), social creativity (embracing positive aspects of the new group), and social competition (tackling stereotypes to create a positive image for the new group).
• Ageism impacts everyone as it creates anxiety about aging and promotes a negative attitude toward the aging process. It reinforces the idea that aging is marked by loss and suggests that this stage of life will be the worst, contributing to a threat to well-being. Ageism is detrimental to individuals' mental and emotional health, regardless of age
• Elderspeak is a communication style that uses a childlike tone when interacting with older people. It includes the use of patronizing language and can contribute to reinforcing ageist stereotypes
• Elderspeak use has been found to lower an older person's self-esteem and cause them to question their ability to accomplish tasks
• Ageism can be internalized by older adults and expressed through age passing, where individuals present themselves as younger than their true age. This behavior neglects the experiences and emotional changes that occur throughout a lifetime. The ageist belief system can lead to individuals trying to avoid the aging process and experiencing a loss of self-esteem
• Social norms guide aging expectations based on gender. For example, women may be expected to take care of children due to perceived emotional qualities, while men are expected to assume positions of authority because of perceived strength and leadership skills. Both ageism and sexism contribute to maintaining male power and privilege
• Sex refers to one's biological status as male or female, while gender involves the way society attributes different characteristics to each sex
• Gender roles are social norms guiding the behavior expected of individuals based on their perceived gender. For instance, women are often expected to be nurturing, while men may be expected to display strength and leadership. An individual following Continuity Theory may respond to a life event by trying to maintain established patterns and roles, seeking to minimize disruption to their identity, behaviors, and relationships. The focus is on preserving consistency in the face of change