Bio macromolecules

• DNA is drawn with O- at the ends of its phosphate group because it is so acidic that it loses the H atoms as soon as it is in a neutral solution (like the inside of our cells, where it is almost always found). If we had DNA in its original form, it would have H attached to the O in the phosphate groups
• ribose chain

  
• Each carbon in a ribose molecule is labeled 1' to 5', 1' being at the carbonyl, and 5' being at the hydroxyl attached to the methy;]l at the end
• The ribose molecule is found in its cyclical form in DNA
• DNA has " deoxy " in it, which refers to the fact that its ribose molecules are missing an oxygen at the 2' carbonyl group, which makes it more stable
• RNA has every oxygen originally in the ribose molecules, unlike DNA, which is missing the oxygen at the 2' carbonyl group. This makes RNA be just ribose, while DNA is deoxyribose.
• Nitrogenous bases with two rings

  Purines
• Nitrogenous bases with one ring

  pyrimidines
• Purines


  Adenine and guanine
• Pyrimidines


  Cytosine and thymine
• The nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds, connecting the two strands of DNA. This happens because nitrogens are extremely eletronegative.
• Nitrogenous bases attach themselves to the sugar part of the sugar phosphate backbone of DNA
• DNA strands are antiparallel, because one goes in the 5'-3' direction, and the other goes in the 3'-5' direction. The strands are complimentary, but their backbones are pointed in different directions
• The ladder structure is formed by the phosphate groups trying to get away from each other and the nitrogenous bases trying to bond with each other
• The difference between Uracil and Thymine is that Thymine has a methyl group that is just a hydrogen in Uracil
• Uracil is a less stable way of translating information than Thymine, so when RNA evolved before DNA, it used Uracil, but when DNA evolved, it used Thymine
• Amino acids


  Building blocks of proteins
• 20


  Number of common amino acids
• the base of amino acids are made up of an amino functional group, connected to a carboxyl group through an alpha carbon, which is also covalently bonded to a hydrogen. The variations between amino acids come from the fourth covalent bond of the alpha carbon
• Zwitterion 


  a molecule or ion having separate positively and negatively charged groups that ends up at a neutral charge
• Primary protein structure


  The order of the amino acids in a protein
• Secondary protein structure


  How the protein is structured due to the interactions of the peptide backbone
• Tertiary protein structure


  How the protein is structured due to side chain interactions
• Quaternary protein structure


  How multiple peptide chains come together
• Saccharide 


  Other word for carbohydrate coming from the greek word for "sweet"
• Carbohydrates


  Biomolecules made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in roughly the ratio of one carbon atom per one oxygen atom, per two hydrogen atoms (same ratio as water)
• Monosaccharides are different from all other carbohydrates because they have an exact 1:1:2 C to O to H ratio, whereas the others can undergo things like dehydration synthesis, which shifts these ratios slightly
• Most of the oxygens in monosaccharides are in hydroxyl (OH) groups, but one of them is in a carbonyl (CO) group
• Aldose


  If a monosaccharide's carbonyl is an aldehyde group, meaning the carbonyl is at the end of the chain
• Ketose


  When a monosaccharide's carbonyl group is a ketone, or internal to the chain
• Ketone


  Carbonyl group where the carbon is bonded to two different groups of atoms (R)
• Aldehyde


  Carbonyl group where the carbon is bonded to one group of atoms (R)
• Isomers


  Compounds that have the same molecular formula but are structurally different
• Stereoisomers


  Atoms with the same molecular structure and formula, but differ from each other in a 3D space
• Isomer molecules

  
• Stereoisomer molecules

  
• When glucose is in ring form, it can have two different versions with different chemical properties: one where the O from the carbonyl (now converted to a hydroxyl group) is "above" the ring, and one where it is "underneath"
• Alpha glucose


  When the hydroxyl group is below the ring
• Beta glucose


  When the hydroxyl group is above the ring
• Amylose and amylopectin


  Two polymers of glucose that make up starch