psych

• what type of method is observation

  non-experimental
• what do observations allow researchers to do

  way of seeing what people do without having to ask them

  allow the study of observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting

  gives researcher flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables
• what is a naturalistic observation

  take place in the setting or context where the behaviour would occur not a lab setting
• evaluate - naturalistic observation

  + high external validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life

  - low reliability due to lack of control over the situation

  - uncontrolled extraneous and confounding variables - low validity
• what is a controlled observation

  some control over variables so they can be manipulated to observe effect

  controls confounding and extraneous variables
• evaluate - controlled observation

  - low ecological validity

  + confounding and extraneous variables more controlled
• whats a covert observation

  when pps are unaware they're being observed, the behaviour observed must be public and happening anyway to be ethical
• evaluate - covert observation

  + no demand characteristics so increases internal validity of data

  - ethical issues as people in the public may not wan their behaviours noted down - right to privacy
• whats a overt observation

  pps are aware they're being observed and give informed consent before hand
• evaluate - overt observation

  + more ethically acceptable

  - demand characteristics and pps know they're being watched
• whats a participant observation

  observer becomes apart of the group producing a first hand account
• evaluate - participant observation

  + may increase external validity as gaining more insight into pps behaviour and lives

  - researcher may identify too strongly with pps and lose objectivity -going native (line between researcher and pps is blurred)
• whats a non-participant observation

  researcher remains separate from those they are studying recording behaviour in a more objective manner
• evaluate - non-participant observation

  + maintain a an objective psychological distance from pps less danger of going native

  - lose insight gained from pps observation as they're too far removed from the pps
• difference between EEG and ERPs

  EEG is the measure of general brain activity where as ERPs provide a specific stimulus and the brains response to this is recorded
• what does fMRI measure

  changes in blood oxygenation and flow in different parts of the brain

  when an area is more active it requires more oxygen so blood flow will increase in this area
• how are EEGS recorded

  measure electrical activity generated by neurons within the brain via electrodes fixed to the scalp
• why were ERPs developed

  EEGs were too general in measuring brain activity, ERPs isolate responses by filtering out EEG recording
• describe post-mortem examinations


  analysis of a person's brain after death usually people with rare disorders to examine areas of damage and compare with neurotypical brains
• evaluate fMRIs - doesn't rely on radiation

  unlike PET scans it doesn't require the use of radiation , therefore is risk free and non-invasive

  also has high spatial resolution therefore detailed
• evaluate fMRIs - expensive

  - image is only clear if person is completely still

  -poor temporal resolution - 5 second time lag between image and neural firing

  - can't show individual activity of the neurons can't really tell what type of brain activity is going on
• evaluate EEGs - diagnosis

  - diagnosed epilepsy - random bursts of activity in brain that is easily detected

  - contributed to understanding stages of sleep, ultradian rhythms

  - high temporal resolution unlike fMRIs

  takes 1 milisecond compared to 5 seconds for fMRI
• evaluate EEGs - too general

  - generalised info

  - can pin point the exact source of neural activity and doesn't distinguish origonating in different but adjacent locations
• evaluate ERPs - specific

  - more specific the=an EEGs

  - high temporal resolution unlike fMRIs

  - use in cognitive functions and deficits
• evaluate ERPs - lack of standardisation

  - lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between research studies difficult to confirm findings

  - for pure data ev and background noise must be eliminated
• evaluate post-mortems - vital in early brain studies

  - early understanding of key processes

  - Broca relied on this technique to establish links between language, brain and behaviour

  - help generate hypothesis for further study
• evaluate post-mortems - causation

  - observed damage to the brain may nmot be linked to deficits but maybe to trauma or decay

  - ethical issues of consent before death, people with rare disorders may not be able to give consent

  - e.g HM lost abilities to form memories wasn't able to provide consent but post-mortem research has been conducted on his brain
• Piaget believed in domain general cognitive development, what does this mean

  that physical and social perspective taking would occur together
• What does Selman (1976) propose

  that the development of social perspective taking is a separate process - a domain specific approach
• What did Selman (1976) look at


  changes that occurred with the age in the children's responses to scenarios in which they were asked to take the role of different people in a social situation
• What was his procedure and the senario

  - involved asking children to take the role if different people in a social situation and consider how each person felt

  - Holly falls out of a tree she promises her father she won't climb trees again

  Kitten stuck up a tree and only she out of her friends can climb up to save the cat

  Should she save the kitten

  Child pps was asked to explain how each person would feel if holly did or didn't climb the tree
• What was Selman's (1976) finding and what this led him to develop

  children of different ages responded in different ways

  - he used these differences to form the Stages of perspective taking
• How many stages ate there of the Stages of perspective taking and what ages fall into each

  stage 0 - 3-6 yrs

  stage 1 - 6-8 yrs

  stage 2 - 8-10 yrs

  stage 3 - 10-12 yrs

  stage 4 - 12+
• Describe stage 0 of Selman's (1976) stages of perspective taking


  child cannot distinguish between their own emotions and those of others, nor explain the emotional state of others
• Describe stage 1 of Selman's (1976) stages of perspective taking


  child can now distinguish between their own point of view and that of others, but can only focus on one perspective at a time
• Describe stage 2 of Selman's (1976) stages of perspective taking


  child can explain the position of another person and appreciate their perspective but can still only focus on one perspective at a time
• Describe stage 3 of Selman's (1976) stages of perspective taking


  child is now able to consider their own point of view and that of another at the same time
• Describe stage 4 of Selman's (1976) stages of perspective taking

  child recognises that understanding others' viewpoints is not enough to allow people to reach an agreement. Social conventions are needed to keep order
• What 3 other elements did Selman (1976) to fully explain social development

  1- interpersonal understanding

  2- interpersonal negotiation strategies

  3- awareness of personal meaning of relationships
• Describe interpersonal understanding


  being able to take on different roles is evidence that we can understand social situations