Biochem (2024)

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    • Dipole - Dipole interactions
      Positive end of one dipole is attracted to the negative end of a second dipole
    • Hydrogen bonds
      A Hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attached to a N, O, or F with a partial negative charge
    • Dispersion forces
      very weak attractive forces that occur between nonpolar molecules
      occur when movement induces a temporary distortion of the electrons in a molecule creating a temporary dipole
      allows nonpolar molecules to exist as liquid and solids
    • What is Hybridisation
      hybridisation involves the promotion of one of the 2s electrons to the vacant 2p orbital and the subsequent 'mixing' of the valence atomic orbitals
    • Alkanes
      Single bonds between the carbons
      all carbons are sp3
      functional group is the C-H
      Cycloalkanes: sp3 carbons forming a ring
    • Alkenes
      C=C double bonds are present in the molecule and this is their functional group sp2 carbons
      cycloalkenes: double bond in a ring
    • Alkynes
      Triple bonds are present btw the carbon atoms (functional grp), sp carbons
      unsaturated
    • Aromatic
      hydrocarbon containing a benzene ring (functional group)
    • Alkanes general formula
      CnH2+2
      saturated hydrocarbons
    • Cyclic alkenes (cylcoalkenes) general formula
      CnH2n
    • Alkynes bond type
      triple carbon bond
    • Alkenes
      hydrocarbons that contain carbon-carbon double bonds
    • anabolic vs catabolic
      Anabolic is the build-up of large molecules from small ones known as biosynthesis.
      catabolic is the breakdown of large molecules to small molecules
    • monosaccharides key info
      fructose, glucose, galactose, ribose
      ketone or aldehyde functional group
      formula = (CH2O)n
      aldehyde groups bonded on the terminal
      ketone group is bonded in the middle
    • monosaccharides of biological significance
      trioses (c3,h6, O3) - aldoses (glycerose) - ketoses (dihydroxyacetone)
      Tetroses  (C4H8O4)  -      
      Pentoses (C5H10O5)  -     
      Hexoses  (C6H12O6)  -     
      Heptoses (C7H14O7)  -                                              
    • D and L sugars
      known as spatial orientation or stereochemistry
      In the D form, the -OH group attached to the carbon atom adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol group ( D form attaches to the right)
      In the L form the -OH group attached to the left
    • Pentoses are
      monosaccharide class with 5 carbons
      aldose = ribose
      Ketoses = ribulose
    • Trioses are
      monosaccharides with 3 carbons
      aldoses = glycerose
      ketoses = dihydroxyacetone
    • Hexoses are
      monosaccharides with 6 carbons
      aldoses = glucose
      ketoses = fructose
    • stereoisomers
      same chemical formula differ in the position of the hydroxyl group on one or more of the asymmetric carbons
    • Enantiomers
      stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other
      same connectivity
      same atoms
      same arrangement
    • Anomers
      different arrangement at the carbonyl carbonhemiacetal or hemiketal carbon)
    • Epimers
      stereoisomers that differ in the position of the hydroxyl (-OH) group only at one asymmetric carbon
    • how can monosaccharides form di-, oligo-, or polysaccharides
      can be linked together through glycosidic bonds
      the reaction is thermodynamically unfavored requiring activated substrates
    • oligo- and polysaccharides can be linked together to form
      glycoproteins
    • Hemiacetals and Hemiketals
      hemiacetals = alcohol added to aldehyde
      hemiketals = alcohol added to ketone
      reversible reaction
      monosaccharides with 5 or 6 atoms
    • five important reactions of monosaccharides
      oxidation of monosacs
      reduction of monosacs
      phosphate ester formation
      amino sugar formation
    • reduction of monosaccharide
      reduction of the carbonyl group on a sugar produces alditols
      naturally occurring ones are D-glucitol (sorbitol)
    • oxidation of monosaccharides
      Benedicts reagent (CU2+/ OH-)
      adds oxygen to carbon-hydrogen single bond of functional group
    • non-reducing sugars
      donate electrons to other molecules
    • reducing sugar
      sugar that has lost an OH group and is therefore a reducing agent
    • example of no reducing sugar
      sucrose - disaccharide - aldehydic or ketonic group are bonded
    • What is a glycosidic bond?
      A covalent bond between a sugar molecule and another molecule.
    • Difference between hydrolysis and dehydration?
      Hydrolysis: Breaking down a compound by adding water. Dehydration: Release of water from a compound (known as condensation)
    • A positive iodine test means that the sample contains?
      unsaturated bonds (double bonds)
    • What is Ammonium sulphate salt ((NH4)2SO4) used for?
      used in salting protein purification to separate proteins based on their solubility in the presence of a high concentration of salt.
      salt stabilizes charged groups on protein molecules and enhances the polarity of water, thus attracting protein into the solution and enhancing the solubility of protein (salt in)
      a threshold is reached of salt concentration where the salt concentration is too high and proteins are no longer soluble.
      salt out occurs at threshold
      different proteins salt out at different concentrations
    • what is Column Chromatography?
      a preparative technique used to purify compounds depending on their polarity 
    • How does column chromatography work?
      The protein solution layered on top of the column percolates into solid matrix
      percolates
      protein solution forms a band in the mobile phase of the collum
      the more a protein interacts with the matrix, the later it will elute from the column
    • Quantitative Protein Assays: Analytical Techniques
    • Coomassie dye (Bradford) protein assays
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