Lung Anatomy

• Parasympathetic effect on bronchial smooth muscle is bronchoconstriction.
• Parasympathetic effect on the grands of the bronchial tree is secretomotor.
• Parasympathetic effect on the pulmonary vascular smooth muscles is vasodilation.
• Sympathetic effect on the bronchial smooth muscle is bronchodilation through circulating catecholamines.
• Sympathetic effect on the on the glands of the bronchial tree is weak excitation for fluid secretion.
• Sympathetic effect on the pulmonary VSM is vasoconstriction through alpha receptors, and vasodilation through beta receptors.
• If there is little oxygen available to the alveoli, they will vasoconstrict as a response without being innervated to do so; if there is a lot of oxygen available to the alveoli, they will vasodilate as a response.
• Pulmonary edema can be caused as left sided heart failure because the backup from the left ventricle can cause back up into the pulmonary vessels.
• Pulmonary edema can be caused by damage to the pulmonary blood capillary membranes.
• Metaplasia is the conversion of the brush cells from columnar cells to squamous cells, usually due to the presence of carcinogens from tobacco or vape smoke.
• Asthma histological features: smaller airways and less plastic
• Emphysema histological features: large alveolar spaces, less elastic fibers.
• Intercostal space consists of 3 layers of muscles: external intercostal, internal intercostal, and innermost intercostal
• Intercostal muscles are used for forced exhalations.