Plants and animals

• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight into energy to fuel their growth.
• The attachment allows for the nourishment and development of the embryo.
• Roots exhibit negative phototropism (grow away from light) to anchor the plant in the soil and show positive hydrotropism (grow towards water) to efficiently absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
• Plants obtain oxygen gas needed for respiration through the process of photosynthesis.
• During the day, plants produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, and some of this oxygen is used for cellular respiration.
• The main factor influencing the movement of water into guard cells during stomatal opening is active transport of potassium ions (K+), creating a hypertonic environment, leading to water influx and turgor pressure, causing stomatal opening.
• The primary function of cellular respiration in both plants and animals is to produce energy (in the form of ATP) by breaking down glucose and other organic molecules, occurring in the mitochondria.
• Apical meristems are predominantly found in the root tips and shoot tips of plants, responsible for primary growth, leading to the lengthening of roots and shoots.
• Xylem, a vascular tissue in plants, is responsible for transporting water and dissolved minerals, and the color change in leaves of celery is due to the movement of water and the absorption of colored substances by the xylem.
• Parenchyma cells are versatile plant cells that can perform photosynthesis, store nutrients, and contribute to plant growth, containing chloroplasts, allowing them to produce food through photosynthesis.
• Lateral meristem, specifically the vascular cambium and cork cambium, is found at the sides of stems and roots, responsible for secondary growth, leading to the increase in girth or thickness of plant structures.
• Parenchyma cells are distinguished by the presence of chloroplasts, which allow them to carry out photosynthesis, while sclerenchyma cells provide structural support with rigid cell walls, and collenchyma cells provide flexible support.
• Plants reproduce through both sexual and asexual means, ensuring genetic diversity and adaptation, with sexual reproduction involving the fusion of gametes, and asexual reproduction involving the formation of offspring without the involvement of gametes.
• In insects, the main respiratory organ is the trachea, with tracheal tubes delivering oxygen directly to cells, and gases moving through the system via diffusion, eliminating the need for specialized respiratory organs like lungs.
• The bicuspid valve, also known as the mitral valve, separates the left atrium from the left ventricle, ensuring one-way flow of blood during the cardiac cycle.
• Oxygen is primarily transported in the blood by binding to hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells.
• The epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing in the respiratory system.
• The trachea has rings of cartilage that prevent collapse, maintaining an open airway for the passage of air.
• The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through the systemic circulation, generating significant force to propel blood into the aorta, which distributes it to various tissues.
• The alveoli provide a large surface area for gas exchange due to their numerous tiny sacs, facilitating efficient diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream and removal of carbon dioxide from the blood.
• Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart, which is then pumped into the systemic circulation by the left ventricle.
• The aorta is the large artery that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to supply oxygen to the rest of the body.
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels where the majority of nutrient and gas exchange occurs within the tissues.
• Each stage of development involves specific cellular and morphological changes leading to the formation of a mature organism.
• During a deep inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and allowing air to rush into the lungs.
• The larynx is located higher in the respiratory tract and plays a role in sound production and protecting the airway.
• The alveoli are responsible for the exchange of gases between the lungs and the bloodstream.
• Diffusion is the process responsible for the passive movement of gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) between an organism's body and its environment.
• The respiratory system collaborates with the cardiovascular system by removing carbon dioxide from the blood during exhalation, as carbon dioxide, when dissolved in the blood, forms an acid.
• High-altitude adaptations, such as increased breathing rate and production of red blood cells, enhance oxygen uptake and delivery in low-oxygen environments.
• The superior vena cava is the large vein responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the upper part of the body to the right atrium, collecting blood from the head, neck, and upper limbs.
• Cleavage divisions of the zygote lead to the formation of a solid ball of cells called the morula, an early stage in embryonic development.
• Ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system, skin, and hair during embryonic development, and is one of the three primary germ layers.
• After fertilization, the zygote undergoes multiple rounds of cell division, forming a solid ball of cells called the blastula, an early stage in embryonic development characterized by a hollow, fluid-filled structure.
• The embryo undergoes rapid cell division without an increase in size during the cleavage stage, resulting in the formation of a multicellular morula.
• The model with three germ layers represents the gastrulation stage of embryonic development, involving the formation of ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
• The correct sequence for the path of blood in systemic circulation is: arteries → arterioles → capillary beds → venules → veins.
• Platelets play a crucial role in blood clotting (hemostasis) when blood vessels are injured, platelets adhere to the site, release clotting factors, and form a plug to prevent excessive bleeding.
• The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which have lower resistance.
• Sexual reproduction is a common reproductive method in both plants and animals, involving the formation of gametes (sex cells) and the fusion of gametes to produce offspring.