Biology

• Nucleus

  • outer has a lot of ribosomes
  • inner has Lamins
  • nuclear pores transport
  • nucleolus particular site for RNA synthesis
  • RNA synthesis is composed of combined proteins called ribosomes
  • chromatin is composed of 2 primary things (DNA-Histones)
  • 2 forms; euchromatin and heterochromatin
  • DNA Replication to make more DNA
  • Transcription to make RNA
  • Types of RNA (tRNA, mRNA, rRNA)
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

  • has ribosome
  • site for proteins (lysosomes, membrane, excreted)
  • protein folding
  • Glycations add on little sugar for residue
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

  • has no ribosomes
  • lipid synthesis (fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol)
  • CYP450 important for detoxification
  • Glucose 6 phosphate metabolism
  • stores calcium
• Golgi Apparatus

  • receives versicles from RER AND SER
  • packages molecules like lysosomal proteins, membrane proteins, and excreted out of the cell
• Cell Membrane

  • also called as plasma membrane
  • found in all cells
  • separates inner cell outside of the environment
  • consists of lipid bilayer
  • regulates the transport of materials from entering and exiting of the cell
  • transport nutrients into the cell
  • transport toxic substances out of the cell
  • has proteins
  • proteins can be glycoproteins
  • lipid proteins
  • proteins allow the cell to interact with another cell
  • act as the structural support
  • different types of plasma membranes, different types of cells
  • has a lot of cholesterol
• Lysosome

  • are cell organelles exclusively found in eukaryotic animal cell
  • membrane is spherical sac filled with hydrolytic enzymes
  • enzymes can break down many types of biomolecule
  • cannot be found in plants
  • vacuoles perform the role of lysosome in plant cell
  • suicidal bag
  • lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in RER
• Peroxisome

  • small vesicles, single membrane found in eukaryotic cell
  • contains digestive system
  • oxidative enzymes for metabolism
  • heterogeneous group of organelles
  • marker enzymes distinguish them from other cell organelles
  • lipid production
  • conversion of reactive oxygen species
  • exists in the form of interconnected tubules in liver cells also known as peroxisome reticulum
  • do not have their own dna
  • In plants, it facilitate photosynthesis and seed germination
• Mitochondria

  • generates most of the chemical energy
  • chemical energy produced stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
  • consists of actin protein
  • produce energy
• Ribosome

  • made up of both RNA and proteins
  • site of protein synthesis
  • reads the mRNA sequence
  • making of proteins
  • ribosomes of each cell made up of two subunits
  • docking station
• Cytoskeleton

  • network of fibers
  • fibers contains complex mesh of protein filaments and motor proteins
  • provides shapes and support to the cell
  • organizes organelles
  • transport of molecules
  • structure; microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filament
• Microtubules

  • contains of protein tubulin
  • 13 tubulin links to form a single tube
  • helps in transporting cellular materials and dividing chromosomes during cell division
• Microfilament

  • thread-like protein fibers
  • found in muscle cell
  • consists of actin protein
  • responsible for muscle contraction, cellular movements including cytokinesis, contraction, and gliding
• Intermediate Filament

  • provides tensile strength
  • formation of keratins and neurofilaments
• Motor Proteins

  • Kinesin- move along together with microtubules
  • Dynein- pull the cells towards the nucleus
  • Myosin- interact with actin protein
• Genetics

  • genotype - nucleotide sequence
  • phenotype - visibly expressed trait
  • dominant - capitalized
  • recessive - lower case
  • homozygous - PP, pp
  • heterozygous - Pp
• Regulation of Gene Expression

  • information from a gene is used to synthesized
  • 2 main stages: transcription and translation
  • transcription - copied into a contemporary molecule by a RNA polymerase
  • translation - mRNA decoded by ribosomes
• Population Growth

  • Natural Selection - non-random mating
  • Gene flow - migration
  • Mutation - source of genetic variation
• Nervous System

  • nerves and cells transmit signal
  • Central nervous system - brain and lungs
  • Peripheral nervous system - all nerves outside CNS
  • somatic nervous system - voluntary
  • automatic nervous system - involuntary
  • neurons - transmit electrical and chemical signals
  • 3 main parts
  • dendrites - receive signal
  • body cell - nucleus and other organelles
  • axon - trasnmit signal
  • neurotransmitters - chemical messenger that transmit signal
  • brain structure
  • cerebrum - highly cognitive function
  • cerebellum - coordinate movements
  • brain stream - bodily function
  • hypothalamus - ANS
• Cardiovascular System

  • 4 chambers (left and right atria; upper) and (left and right ventricles; lower)
  • valve between the heart prevent the backflow of the blood
  • blood vessels
  • arteries - carry blood away from the heart
  • veins - carry blood into the heart
  • capillaries - tiny blood vessels
  • blood- transports oxygen
  • 2 main circulation (pulmonary and systemic)
  • Pulmonary circulation - blood is pumped from the heart into the lungs
  • Systemic circulation - blood is pumped from the heart into the body's tissues
• Reproductive System

  • responsible for breathing
  • lungs - main part
  • trachea - windpipe
  • bronchi - trachea branche into two tubes
  • bronchioles - smaller tubes
  • alveoli - tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs
• Urinary System

  • liver - main, filter waste
  • ureter - carry urine from the liver
  • bladder - stores urine
  • urethra - carry urine from the bladder
  • nephrons - filtering blood and produce urine
• Endocrine System

  • produce and release hormones
  • feedback mechanism - hormone secretion
  • pituitary gland - master gland
  • thyroid gland - hormones regulate metabolism
  • adrenal gland - hormones such as cortisol
  • pancreas - produce insulin and glucagon