sharpeville massacre and armed struggle

• Events leading to the massacre

  • Origins of Resistance: From the inception of apartheid in 1948, black South Africans consistently resisted its draconian regulations. The pass laws, requiring non-whites to carry documents justifying their presence in certain areas, became especially reviled.
• Events leading to the massacre

  • PAC's Campaign: The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), under the leadership of Robert Sobukwe, sought a decisive challenge against the pass laws. Their strategy was mass surrender to police without passes, effectively overwhelming the prison system.
• Events leading to the massacre

  • Day of the Protest: On 21 March 1960, large crowds assembled at various police stations. Sharpeville's congregation was one of the largest, with estimates suggesting between 5,000 to 7,000 protesters.
• The massacre itself

  • Initial Confrontation: As the crowds grew, police barriers were set up. The atmosphere, though initially peaceful, grew tense.
• The massacre itself

  • Firing Begins: A scuffle near the police lines resulted in the officers panicking and firing directly into the crowd.
• The massacre itself

  • Casualties: 69 individuals, including women and children, were killed, with many shot in the back, implying they were fleeing. Another 180 sustained injuries.
• Causes of the massacre

  • Systemic Racism: The inherent racism of the apartheid system and the government's dogged determination to maintain white supremacy played a critical role.
• Causes of the massacre

  • Police Unpreparedness: Poor training and a lack of discipline meant police were not equipped to handle large, peaceful protests.
• Causes of the massacre

  • The Challenge: The PAC's proactive challenge to the pass laws was perceived as a direct affront to the government's authority.
• Consequences of the massacre

  • Domestic Uproar: The incident sparked nationwide outrage. Many realised that peaceful protests might not be enough to dismantle apartheid.
• Consequences of the massacre

  • State of Emergency: The government reacted by declaring a state of emergency on 30 March, arresting more than 18,000 suspected dissidents.
• Consequences of the massacre

  • Global Reaction: Sharpeville propelled apartheid into global consciousness. Nations condemned the violence, leading to South Africa's increased international isolation. The UN's Resolution 134 became a testament to this condemnation.
• Background

  • Ban on Political Movements: The South African government clamped down hard after Sharpeville, banning both the ANC and PAC. This left anti-apartheid leaders with difficult choices regarding the path forward.
• Background

  • Non-violence Inadequate: It became increasingly clear that non-violent resistance, though morally commendable, wasn't bringing about tangible change.
• Formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

  • Genesis: With peaceful avenues appearing ineffective, the ANC and SACP inaugurated Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961. Nelson Mandela cited the brutality of state actions, like Sharpeville, as reasons for this move towards an armed wing.
• Formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

  • Philosophy: MK emphasised sabotage over direct confrontation to minimise civilian casualties. They targeted government facilities symbolising apartheid oppression.
• Formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

  • Foreign Support: Recognising the need for specialised training, MK operatives travelled abroad, notably to the Soviet Union and Algeria, to hone their guerrilla warfare skills.
• Manifestations of armed struggle

  • Sabotage Campaigns: These involved attacks on government installations, infrastructure, and communication systems. The idea was to disrupt without causing death.
• Manifestations of armed struggle

  • Shift to Guerrilla Warfare: Over time, elements within MK pushed for guerrilla tactics, implying direct confrontations with state forces.
• Manifestations of armed struggle

  • Recruitment and Training: MK set up training camps outside South Africa, especially in neighbouring countries, and in collaboration with other liberation movements.
• Impact on the anti-apartheid movement

  • Strategic Divisions: The move towards armed struggle was controversial. It divided members, with some fearing it would legitimise government crackdowns.
• Impact on the anti-apartheid movement

  • Galvanising Youth: Younger generations, frustrated with the pace of change, were increasingly drawn to MK's proactive approach.
• Impact on the anti-apartheid movement

  • International Solidarity: While some global entities hesitated to back an armed movement, others, especially socialist nations, offered moral and material support.
• Impact on South African politics

  • State's Justification: The apartheid regime used MK's actions to justify further repressive measures, branding anti-apartheid activists as terrorists.
• Impact on South African politics

  • Mobilisation of Resources: The state ramped up its military and intelligence capabilities to counter MK operations.
• Impact on South African politics

  • Political Dialogues: Despite the hostilities, backchannel dialogues persisted, albeit fruitlessly, during these years. The armed struggle, for many in power, highlighted the unsustainability of apartheid, gradually pushing them towards negotiations.