9.1 Patterns of urbanisation since 1945

• Urbanisation - an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
• The urban population has grown rapidly from 736 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014.

  The most urbanised regions include Northern America (82% live in urban areas) and Europe (74%)

  Africa and Asia remain rural, with 43% and 50% of their population living urban areas. This is likely to change due to the fastest growing urban areas are currently found in Asia and Africa.
• Some cities have experienced population decline caused by:

  • economic contraction e.g Detroit USA
  • low fertility rates e.g Japan
  • emigration
  • natural disaster
• Megacity - city with 10 million or more residents
• Metacity - a city with over 20 million residents
• Causes of urban growth:

  • cities hold much of a natural economic, business and transportation and have higher levels of education, better health, easier access to social service and greater opportunities for cultural and political participation.
• Natural population growth:

  • urban areas have relatively young age profiles
  • it has traditionally been young adults migrating for higher paid jobs, better educational opportunities and greater social and cultural diversity
  • these migrants are in their fertile years so the rates of natural increase are higher in cities than in rural areas
• Rural to urban migration - movement of people from countryside to a built up area
• Rural to urban migration:

  Push factors:

  • population growth, causing over-farming, soil erosion and low yields
  • agriculture problems, including desertification
  • diseases and inadequate medical provision
  • natural disasters e.g floods
  • wars and civil strife
• Rural to urban migration:

  Pull factors:

  • employment in factories and service industries (better paid). Increasingly high demand for unskilled labour in cities
  • earning money from the informal sector e.g taxi driver
  • better quality social provisions e.g education and healthcare
  • a perceived better quality of life
• consequences of urbanisation and urban growth:

  • housing, traffic, waste disposal, these tend to be linked with topography and climate.
• Urban sprawl - the spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
• urban sprawl

  • requires more roads and infrastructure. Less economically efficient to service low density rural areas compared to compact urban developments
  • wildlife habitat loss
  • more commuting and therefore fuel consumption and traffic congestion
  • increase air pollution, increased temperatures (urban heat island)
  • loss of farmland and open spaces, led to loss of fresh local food sources
• consequences of urbanisation:

  shortage of housing in LIC:

  • inadequate housing, which normally develop on the edges of cities or in areas of low value land prone to flooding or environmental hazards
  • settlements normally have limited access to basic infrastructure
• consequences of urbanisation:

  shortage of affordable housing in HIC

  • led to dramatic increase in both house prices and rental costs
  • In London house prices has rose by 70% between 2010 and 2019
• consequences of urbanisation:

  lack of urban services and waste disposal

  • financial restraits in LIC can results in a lack of basic services
  • the amount of waste increases year on year which can lead to economic, physical and environmental restraints

  Unemployment and under employment

  Transport issues - increased traffic in cities has lead to congestion and pollution, damaging human health. The spread of houses into the suburbs have lead to many commuters.
• Sub-urbanisation - the movement of people from living in the inner parts of the city to living on the outer edges. Facilitated by development of transport networks and the increase in ownerships of private cars.
• urban resurgence - the regeneration, both economically and structurally of an urban area which has been through a period of urban decline.
• Gentrification - the buying and renovation of properties, often in more run down areas, by wealthier individuals
• edge city - a self contained settlement which has emerged beyond the original city boundary and developed as a city in its own right
• Sub-urbanisation: through the years

  • 1930s - alongside main roads with few planning controls
  • 1940s - creation of green belts (open spaces and low density land use) development was strictly controlled
  • 1950s and 60s - suburban planning increased but better planned. large scale construction of council housing took place
  • 1970s - a move towards home ownership, lead to private housing estates (allowed people to have gardens and more open spaces)
  • recent years - new housing estates built in suburban areas, along with shopping centres and schools
• Sub-urbanisation: negatives

  • increasing social segregation within cities as the wealthy move out to the suburbs or gather in wealthy enclaves such as Belgravia. less affluent people remain in the inner cities.
  • diversion of funding away from inner city areas to the suburbs to pat for new infrastructure and services
• counter-urbanisation - the movement of people from large urban areas into the smaller urban areas or into rural areas.
• Counter-urbanisation: leads to growth in rural areas

  causes:

  • escape the air-pollution, dirt and crime of urban environment
  • land and houses are cheaper
  • commute
  • improvements in technology have allowed more freedom of location
• Counter-urbanisation: leads to growth in rural areas

  Effects:

  • affects the layout of rural settlements
  • tension with newcomers and the locals
  • increased value of houses
  • constructions of more executive houses
  • conversion of former farm buildings
  • increase in commuter railways
• Urban resurgence: causes and effects

  • 1970s and 80s saw former industrial cities of the UK experience and manufacturing decline but have reinvented themselves of culture and commerce
  • often driven by governmental led regeneration schemes.
  • decrease crime rate, domestic comforts & sense of community space.
  • however, the traditional community is lost, fewer homes are affordable, population rapidly growing and demolition of social housing due to low quality.
• Re-urbanisation in New Islington/Ancoat's Manchester

  • the end of the industrial revolution left huge factories vacant and social housing built for workers were poor quality
  • unemployment, drug problems, vandalism and burglary which led people moving out of the area

  Features:

  • 1700 new homes constructed, existing social housing improved and local facilities built (healthcare, primary school, village hall, cafes and restaurants), public transport added.
  • green improvements such as eco-park called cotton field park.
• Re-urbanisation in New Islington/Ancoat's Manchester

  Pros and Cons:

  • decreased derelict properties
  • increased house prices and very few kept for social housing
  • improved aesthetics
  • decreased crime rates
  • traditional community lost - lots of conflict and segregation
  • more buildings, higher emissions etc
• De-industrialisation - the long term decline of a countrys manufacturing and heavy industry as it moves towards a service and knowledge based economy.
• Causes of deindustrialisation:

  • mechanism - most firms can produce their goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people
  • competition from abroad - particularly rapid industrialising countries of the time such as India and China
  • reduced demand for traditional products as new materials and technologies have been developed
• UK industry

  • 1911 - 22% of jobs being textile manufacturing (secondary)
  • 1911 - engineering & electrical goods was 8% of all jobs
  • 2013 - 0.5% of jobs being in textile manufacturing
  • 2013 - engineering & electrical goods decreased to 1.8% of all goods
• Impacts of decentralisation:

  Economic

  • loss of jobs
  • closure of other businesses
  • loss of income in the service sector

  Social

  • increased unemployment
  • higher levels of deprivation
  • higher crime rates, alcohol, drug abuse etc

  Environmental

  • derelict land & buildings
  • long term pollution of land
  • deteriorating infrastructure
  • reduction in noice, land and water pollution
• Decentralisation - the movement of population and industries from the urban centre to outlying areas
• Decentralisation - Sheffield, Meadowhall site

  • Meadowhall opened in 1990
  • was suffering from steel and coal industries
  • provided employment 8,500, increased income towards economoy, encourages tourists to spend money on the economy, more transport links developed and only smaller businesses in town centre so they can strive
  • pollution, inner city shops are deserted, only few shops left so barely anyone visits, crime rates increase in city centre and city centre now only consists of bars and clubs etc which is no place for older community (social segregation)
• Detroit, USA

  • migrated to work at 'big 3' auto companies (ford, general motor & chrysler) became a hub of trade
  • mansion, skyscrapers were built for millionaires
  • refusal by blacks and whites to work side by side (racial tension)
  • factories were built in suburbs
  • 1950 - population peaked at 1.85 million, 1970 - population shrank during energy crisis, 1980 - economic recession caused population decrease, 2013 - bankruptcy debt of 18 billion dollars
  • industries moved out, dragged many residents out, city became abandoned and increase of crime rates.
  • inner city unemployment of 28%
• Urban policy in the UK:

  1979-1991 = emphasis given to property led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture

  1991-1997 = partnership schemes and competition led policy

  1997-200 = area based initiatives

  2011-present = developing responsibilities to cities in England
• Regeneration policy in the UK:

  1980s - urban development corporations e.g London Docklands

  1990s - city challenge, where cities compete with each other for governmental regeneration grants e.g Hulme city challenge Manchester

  2011 onwards - city deals, allowed cities to take responsibility for decisions etc
• Urban policy - related to strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development. of urban areas and reduce urban problems.