Comparative theory

• What is realism?

  • A belief that world politics will remain a field of conflict among actors who are pursuing power
• What is liberalism?

  Rejects power politics as the sole outcome of international relations and emphasises mutual benefits and cooperation
• What is international anarchy?

  The concept that the world system is leaderless and there is no universal sovereign or worldwide government
• What is the security dilemma?

  Actions by a state intended to increase its security, such as increasing its military strength, can lead to other states responding with similar measures, producing increased tensions that create conflict
• What is complex interdependence?

  Interconnectedness of states through multiple channels, such as economic, political, and social, leading to mutual dependence and cooperation.
• What are the main beliefs of realism?

  • Nation states are the most important actors, no other actor has the authority to control the behaviour of nation states, states should become as powerful as they can and prioritise their security, liberal principles are irrelevant and may be destabilising.
• What are the main beliefs of liberalism?

  • States aren’t the only actors in global politics, there is a large variety of non-state actors who play a positive role and can help states become aware of different viewpoints.
  • International law is possible and desirable, it can help to hold states accountable for their actions
  • Reject the idea that conflict is inevitable - there is a mutual benefit in states cooperating and working together on trade, security and development.
• What do realists believe about human nature?

  Humans are naturally selfish and egotistical, states are therefore exclusively interested in their own interests. Human nature is fixed and driven, states are motivated by a desire and have power over others (Hans Morgenthau).
• What do liberals believe about human nature?

  They have an optimistic view, the state can improve and develop. Humans are committed to individual liberty and freedom - states prefer to partner with others and look for opportunities to do so.
• What do realists believe about the inevitability of conflict?

  Conflict is an unavoidable feature of global politics as states will continually seek to advance their interests. Defending internal security and stability is crucial and this is best done through well-defended borders and clearly enforced laws. Every state is a threat.
• What do liberals believe the three restraints on conflict are?

  1. Democracy - conflict between democratic states is rare as governments in democratic states are held to account and seek permission before they engage in military action.
  2. IGOs - are a means of peaceful dispute resolution between states. They don’t have full authority over nation-states, and can ignore them or opt out 
  3. Economic interdependence and trade - believes that the more nation states trade with each other, the more dependent on each other and the more likely it is that conflict would mutually be harmful.
• What do realists believe about power?

  All states are trying to find ways of increasing their power and influence within the global political order.
• What do liberals believe about power?

  The use of military power is often counterproductive and hard power should only be used as a last resort. States shouldn’t aim to become more powerful at the expense of all the states. 
• What do realists believe about the roles of state and sovereignty?

  States are the primary and most powerful actors in global politics, sovereignty should not be violated, limited or given away.
• What do liberals believe about the roles of state and sovereignty?

   States are important actors in the world of global politics, but they work within a complex web of interdependence with other actors such as IGOs and NGOs. Sovereignty can be used to the advantage of a state by pooling sovereignty can make a state more powerful and effective
• What is the Realist Kenneth Waltz's view?


  He is a defence realist thinker who favoured bipolarity over multipolarity (where two countries competed for power over many). Believed bipolarity could lead to easier negotiation and therefore stability. Links to the security dilemma, states increasing their power and influence and states competing with each other.
• What is the Realist Hedley Bull's view?

  Identified the idea of an anarchical society in global politics. Believed a society of states emerged within this anarchy to promote common interests and values. Links to state sovereignty.
• What is the Realist Hans Morgenthau's view?


  A classical realist thinker. Political man is a naturally selfish creature and will always try and dominate. Moral considerations in global politics are less important than the national interest. Can link this with Hobbes. Links with increasing power and influence and national self-interest.
• What is the Realist John Mearsheimer's view?

  An offensive realist thinker. Explain that conflict and competition for power between the great world powers will continue. States are trying to secure hegemony. Links with national self-interest and states competing with each other.
• What is John Dalton's Billiard Ball Model?

  1. There are push factors separating nation-states - including scarce resources, religion or war
  2. Pull factors bring nation-states together - trade agreements or military alliances
  3. Every billiard ball is sovereign meaning it is protected from IGO's
  4. Bigger balls will have more influence - USA and China exert the biggest influence
  5. This model has come under pressure due to complex independence which has led to the cobweb model (interconnectedness)
• How is the 2003 Iraq war an example of realism in global politics?

  1. US had no international support - no UNSC resolution
  2. 2016 - concluded that the case for war was 'unjustified' and there was 'no imminent threat', against the laws of founding UN Charter
  3. USA and its allies were acting in their own national interest - Blair: Iraq represented 'a current and serious threat to UK national interest'
• How is China's activity in the South China Sea an example of realism in global politics?


  US has responded to the tension by carrying out Freedom of Navigation Patrols and increasing its diplomatic and military influence in Asia. 2013 UN tribunal ruled that China wasn't complying with international law as it was building islands and increasing naval patrols to attempt to expand its territorial waters.
• How is the Russian annexation of Crimea and example of realism in global politics?


  Pro-Russian rebel groups and Russian troops went into the Ukrainian area of Crimea and declared the region as independent as it had the Sevastopol warm-water port. A referendum was held with 96% of Crimean's voting to join Russia - UNSC Resolution tried to condemn the referendum as the presence of Russian troops meant it wasn't a free and fair election.
• How is the 2016 Leave Campaign and example of realism in global politics?


  Argued that sovereignty had been eroded by the EU and so UK left out of national self-interest.
• What is the liberal cobweb model?

  Recognises that globalisation has allowed for international flows of people and money and that states are now all interdependent - making it impossible for states to achieve big tasks alone.
• What are the views of Liberal Robert Keohane?

  • States should trade with each other to get stronger economically and reduce the likelihood of conflict
  • Challenges the idea that states will always reject cooperation
  • Believes it is rational to pursue cooperation
  • Agrees that states are inherently egotistical but believes international institutions can help achieve shared solutions
• What are the views of Liberal Francis Fukuyama?

  • Conflict should be avoided and democracy is a way to do this
  • Calls liberal democracy the 'endpoint of mankind's ideological development'
• What are the views of Liberal Kenichi Ohmae?

  • Globalisation has caused a revolutionary shift in thought
  • States are losing their economic power and are no longer the main participants in the global economy.
• What is the realist view on the significance of nation-states and international organisations?

  Nation-states should prioritise their security and geo-strategic interests, can participate in global governance if they provide an opportunity for the national interest to be defended, never intervene with the sovereign affairs of another state.
• What is the liberal view on the significance of the nation-state and international organisations?

  Nation-states should cooperate and be prepared to sacrifice sovereignty in institutions of global governance, there's a moral obligation for intervention if crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide are taking place.
• What is the polycentric approach?


  A management approach that allows subsidiaries in different countries to have a high degree of autonomy and decision-making power.
• What is Realist Hedley Bull's society of states theory?


  Since global politics is anarchic, there is no supranational authority which can compel the obedience of nation-states, states act out of self-interest. However, it recognises that nation-states can make the rational decision to work with other nation states to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes - it is possible to construct a relatively stable society of states based on realist self-interest.
• What is an example of Hedley Bull's society of states theory?

  In the 1970s, President Nixon and his national security adviser developed a loosening of tension with the Soviet Union as they both believed the would benefit from developing more positive relations.
• Codependency in the West has led to a bipolar situation with the rest that has left the door open to hostility - the West vs Russia
• Realist - Trump says he would allow Russia to attack any NATO country that doesn't pay enough - February 2024
• What are examples of Realism since the 2000s in global politics?

  • Brexit 2021
  • Failure of Doha trade round as nation-states weren't compromising national interests
  • Climate progress is slow as states are unprepared to accept limits
  • Russia and China more prepared to deploy military power
  • Regional organisations generally fail to challenge state sovereignty
• What are examples of Liberalism since the 2000s in global politics?

  • Climate summits
  • Lisbon Treaty - has increased EU cohesion
  • Russia's invasion of Ukraine has led to greater EU integration