Alexander II - Opposition

• Reforms in the 1860s created excitement but also opposition.
• Censorship relaxation encouraged more radical books.
• Educational changes led to the growth of radical student organisations.
• Legal reforms promoted legal careers that attracted the middle class who were critical of the government.
• Young Russia was an opposition group formed in 1862 and they were hostile to the Tsar and the Church.
• The Organisation was an opposition group formed in 1863 and it was set up by Moscow University alumni to carry out revolutionary activities.
• A reactionary period started in 1866-67 because of attempted assassinations on the Tsar.
• Alexander II appointed reactionary ministers such as Dmitry Tolstoy and Peter Shuvalov.
• The reactionary ministers argued that Westernising changes were weakening Russia.
• Economic and legal reforms still continued but the others were halted or reversed.
• The authority of primary schools returned to the Church and the activities of the zemstva were restricted.
• Secondary schools were ordered to remove sciences from their curriculum.
• From 1871, vocational students could only attend higher technical institutions.
• Literature and history were banned in universities because they encouraged critical thinking.
• Student organisations were banned.
• The government could veto university appointments.
• Religious control was reasserted with the new education policies and the curriculum became restricted.
• Female education declined and many studied abroad to escape restrictions.
• The work of the Third Section increased.
• Political offenders could face show trials until 1878.
• From 1878, political crimes could be tried in secret military courts that had not changed under the judicial reform of the 1860s.
• Governor-generals had emergency powers to use military courts and exile from 1879.
• Critics and opposition thrived underground.
• Show trials were abandoned because of sympathetic juries such as in the Vera Zasulich case.
• The Russo-Turkish War took place between 1877-78 and a famine took place between 1879-80.
• An industrial recession started in the late 1870s and assassination attempts on the Tsar from the 1860s started to repeat itself.
• Loris-Melikov was appointed to Minister of the Interior in 1880 and he was to investigate revolutionary activities.
• Political prisoners were released because of Loris-Melikov.
• Censorship was relaxed because of Loris-Melikov.
• Zemstva restrictions were lifted because of Loris-Melikov.
• The salt tax was removed because of Loris-Melikov.
• The Third Section was abolished by Loris-Melikov and replaced by the Okhrana.