Alexander II - Reforms

• Disappointment and other issues were reasons for further reform.
• Military Reform - Conscription was made compulsory for all classes.
• Military Reform - The length of service was reduced from 25 to 15 years with only 6 years in active service.
• Military Reform - Corporal punishment was abolished.
• Military colleges were established to train officers and modern weaponry was also introduced.
• After military reform, the new army was best described as smaller but better-trained.
• Costs were reduced after the military reform.
• Literacy was improved through army education campaigns.
• However, leading officers were still aristocrats and the upper class still served less time.
• Local Government Reform - Zemstva were established at district and provincial levels in 1864.
• Local Government Reform - Anyone could vote in zemstva elections but the votes of the nobility had more influence.
• The zemstva were given powers to improve public service and industry which relieved the poor.
• The zemstva offered representative government at the local level by improving welfare and education but they were dominated by nobles and "professionals".
• People could criticise government policies through the zemstva forum but the zemstva did not have control over taxation and the law.
• Judicial Reform - Criminal cases were now heard before barristers and a jury.
• Judicial Reform - All classes were now treated equally before the law.
• Judicial Reform - Judges' training and pay improved.
• As a result of judicial reform, the system became fairer and less corrupt as a jury could undermine government control such as the Vera Zasulich case.
• Ecclesiastical and military courts were not affected by judicial reform and the reform did not apply in Poland.
• Improvements in literacy and numeracy were important for Russia's modernisation in changes and the liberal Alexander Golovnin led important changes.
• The zemstva took responsibility for primary education which was now free for all.
• Vocational schools were set up at secondary level and students could progress to university from these schools.
• Universities became self-governing in 1863 and liberal courses were offered.
• Primary schools tripled between 1856 and 1880 and the amount of students doubled.
• There was a greater selection of subjects in school and the number of students at university tripled.
• However, the primary curriculum was still based on religion but it did offer reading, writing and arithmetic.
• Secondary education was limited because it still had fees meaning only the better-off could afford it.
• More radical students joined opposition movements that were committed to violence.
• The military and judicial reforms took place in 1874.
• The local government reforms took place in 1864 and in 1870.
• The education reforms took place between 1863-64.