Biology Exam Review

• chromatin - DNA + proteins that make up chromosomes
• ribosome - site of protein synthesis
• cytoplasm - jelly-like substance inside the plasma membrane where most chemical reactions take place
• nucleus - contains the genetic material (DNA) of the cell, controls all activities within the cell
• nucleolus - site where ribosomal RNA is made
• centrioles - organelles involved with cell division
• mitochondria - site of aerobic respiration, energy production
• nucleus - contains genetic material (DNA) which controls all cellular activities
• mitochondria - powerhouse of cells, produces ATP through aerobic respiration
• cell wall - provides support to plant cells, made of cellulose
• vacuole - stores water, waste products, pigments, enzymes, and other substances
• vacuole - stores water, waste products, pigments, enzymes
• chloroplasts - site of photosynthesis, green pigment chlorophyll
• the nucleus is the control center of the cell
• • Lytic Cycle (All DNA viruses produce this way) - Virus enters host cell, DNA replicates, viral RNA is made, viral proteins assemble, viral DNA is released
• • Dichotomous key - Two-part key used to identify living things
• • Viruses are not considered a living organism because : 
  • Not made up of cells
  • Only capable of reproduction & only within a living cell. Outside of cells, viruses are lifeless chemicals.
• The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota
• • The reason why virus can only reproduce within a host cell is because : 
  • Lack of specific enzymes and ribosomes (virus can only make new cores & capsids)
  • Have no energy of their own.
• Asexual Reproduction - One parent produces offspring without fertilization or fusion with another gamete
• Sexual Reproduction - Parents combine genetic material from two individuals through the process of sexual intercourse
• Both asexual and sexual reproduction have advantages and disadvantages
• • Euglenoids : 
  • have flagella & gullet like an animal cell
  • Moves towards like light for photosynthesis to obtain energy 
  • The outer protein coat around euglenoids is called pellicle, It covers the surroundings of the cytoplasm and protects it. It provides flexibility while also maintaining the organism’s form.
• • Rhizopods : 
  • Amoeba move with cytoplasmic projections called pseudopods.

  Pseudopods is a finger-like projection of the cell membrane, Its function is to move and capture food.
• • Asexual reproduction often involves the formation of spores through processes like mitosis : when mature, sporangia (spore) break open releasing 1000’s of spores to be carried by the wind, then each spore forms a new mycelium (identical to parent).
• • Sexual reproduction : 2 nuclei in specialized hyphae (+) & (-) fuse and grow into a mushroom (fruiting body). Sexually produced spores form on the inside of the gills, as spores mature, mushroom opens up & releases its spores to the wind (up to 2 billion/mushroom), each spore grows into a genetically different mycelium.
• Fungi are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from their environment. They can live in soil or water, but they do not require sunlight to survive. Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually.
• Plants are autotrophs that produce their own food using chlorophyll. They can live in soil or water, but they need sunlight to survive. Plants reproduce sexually and asexually.
• Bacteria are prokaryotes that lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some bacteria are autotrophs, while others are heterotrophs. Bacteria can live in soil, water, or extreme environments such as hot springs or acidic lakes. Bacteria reproduce rapidly through binary fission.
• Viruses are non-cellular entities made up of genetic material surrounded by a protective capsid. Viruses cannot replicate without infecting a host cell. Many viruses cause diseases in plants and animals.
• Protists are eukaryotic cells that come in many shapes and sizes. Protists include single-celled organisms such as amoebas and diatoms, as well as multicellular organisms such as slime molds and seaweeds.
• Protists are eukaryotic cells with diverse structures and functions. Some protists are unicellular, while others are multicellular. Protists can be found in various habitats including freshwater, marine environments, and terrestrial ecosystems. Reproduction methods include sexual and asexual means.
• • Dermal Tissue : Protect against injury, disease, and water loss
  • Vascular Tissue : transport water and nutrients 
  • Ground Tissue : Support growth development and store carbohydrates especially starch.
• Modern plants likely descended from Green Algae 
• the major structures of most fungi.

  • Made of thin long thread-like filaments called hyphae some Hyphae have: 
  • Cross walls (septa) have pores which allow the movement of cytoplasm & nuclei between cells. No cross walls, can’t see individual cells.
• The main function of the root is to anchor the plant into soil and absorb water and minerals from the soil. The stem supports the leaves above ground and transports water and dissolved mineral salts throughout the plant. Leaves contain chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs. Flowers produce seeds and fruits. Seeds germinate to form new plants. Fruits protect developing seeds until they mature enough to grow on their own.
• Plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen through photosynthesis. This process provides food for the plant and releases oxygen into the atmosphere. Plants also release water vapor during this process.
• Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. It involves two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions.
• • Endosymbiotic Theory - It gives an explanation on how eukaryotic cells could have evolved from prokaryotic cells. A large cell prokaryote ingested a smaller prokaryote, instead of those smaller prokaryotes getting digested, it remained intact and they began to live as symbionts (they live together). 
• Sexual reproduction involves two different parent cells. It produces genetically unique offspring. Sexual reproduction takes longer than asexual reproduction because it requires two parents. However, it allows for greater genetic diversity among individuals produced by sexual reproduction.