PY210

• The four main objectives of science are:

  •   description
  •   prediction
  •   explanation
  •   control
• How are science, methodology, and data interrelated?

  Science connotes content and process.

  Methodology consists of the scientific techniques we use to collect and evaluate data.

  Data are the facts we gather using scientific methods.
• Heider called nonscientific data gathering commonsense psychology.

  • Approach uses nonscientific sources of data & nonscientific inference
  • An everyday Ex: "opposites attract" 
• Explain nonscientific inference: Nonscientific inference is the nonscientific use of information to explain or predict behavior.

  EX. The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of trait explanations, stereotyping, and overconfidence bias illustrate this problem.
• Why is the overuse of trait explanations a problem?

  When we overuse trait explanations to explain others' behavior, we often make unwarranted dispositional attributions and underuse situational information.

  This bias can reduce the accuracy of our explanations and predictions.
• How can stereotyping mislead us?

  In stereotyping, we falsely assume that specific behaviors cluster together.

  EX: since Imei is a Chinese-American student, she must study 10 hours a day and excel at math. In reality, she failed calculus.
• W- white 

  E- educated 

  I-  industrialized 

  R- rich 

  D- democratic 
• Why is overconfidence bias a problem?

  In overconfidence bias, we feel more confident about our conclusions than is warranted by available data. This form of nonscientific inference can result in erroneous conclusions when we don't recognize the limitations of supporting data 
• Why is the scientific mentality important?

  Alfred North Whitehead’s scientific mentality assumes that behavior follows a natural order and can be predicted.

  This assumption is essential to science. There is no point to using the scientific method to gather and analyze data if there is no implicit order.
• What makes data empirical?

  Data are empirical when observed or experienced.

  Galileo’s empirical approach was superior to Aristotle’s commonsense method.

  Galileo correctly concluded that light objects fall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.
• What is a law?

  A law consists of statements generally expressed as equations with few variables that have overwhelming empirical support.

  Laws, like the Laws of Thermodynamics, are useful in the physical sciences.
• What is a theory?

  A theory is an interim explanation; a set of related statements used to explain and predict phenomena.

  Theories integrate diverse data, explain behavior, and predict new instances of behavior.
• What is good thinking and why is it important?

  Good thinking is critical to the scientific method.

  When we engage in good thinking data collection and interpretation become systematic, objective, and rational.
• What is parsimony?

  The principle of parsimony is that we prefer the simplest useful explanation.

  For example, Crandall (1988) showed that a social contagion model of bulimia was more parsimonious than competing explanations.
• How did Sir Karl Popper believe that science advances?

  Sir Karl Popper proposed that science advances by revising theories based on the “weight of evidence.”

  Science is self-correcting as scientific explanations and theories are challenged, and revised or replaced.
• What role does the principle of modus tollens play in science?

  The principle of modus tollens allows us to disprove statements using a single, contrary observation.

  We can never prove a statement because a contradictory observation might be found later.
• How does replication advance science?

  Replication is an exact or systematic repetition of a study.

  Replication increases our confidence in experimental results by adding to the weight of supporting evidence.
• Description is a systematic and unbiased account of observed characteristics of behaviors.

  Prediction is the capability of knowing in advance when certain behaviors should occur.

  Explanation is knowledge of the conditions that reliably produce a behavior.

  Control is the use of scientific knowledge to influence behavior.
• The main tools of psychological science are:

  •   observation
  •   measurement
  •   experimentation
• Observation is the systematic noting and recording of events.

  Systematic means that the procedures are consistently applied.

  The events or their signs must be observable. Observations must be objective so that there can be strong agreement among raters.

  Measurement assigns numbers to objects, events, or their characteristics. This is an inherent feature of quantitative research.

  Experimentation is the process we use to test the predictions we call hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

  Experimentation is not always possible because our predictions must be testable.
• What are the requirements for an experiment?

  We must be able to manipulate the independent variable and measure its effect on the dependent variable. An experiment requires that we create at least two treatment conditions and randomly assign subjects to these conditions.
• How does an experiment establish cause and effect?

  An experiment attempts to establish a cause- and-effect relationship between the antecedent conditions (IV) and subject behavior (DV).

  Experiments establish a temporal relationship, because causes must precede effects. However, not all prior events are causes.
• What are pseudosciences?

  A pseudoscience is any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific, but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using the scientific method.