Urban Issues & Challenges (A)

• Global Population Change

  Global population has risen over time. Population growth was slow up until the early 20th century. Since then it has increased exponentially. Population probably reached 8 billion on 15th November 2022

  When population reaches 9 billion it is expected to slow down (plateau) and only reach around 11 billion people.
• Urbanisation

  Over half of the world's population now live in towns/cities(Urban areas).

  By 2030 this is likely to be 60% and reach 70% by 2050.

  This process is known as urbanisation.
• Urbanisation in LICs:

  The highest rates of urbanisation are in poorer, Low Income Countries (LICs) in Asia and Africa. In most of these countries, a majority of the population still live in rural areas and the rate of rural to urban

  migration is high. The population of cities is younger, so the rate of natural increase is also high.

  
• Urbanisation in HICs:

  There are lower rates of urbanisation in richer, Higher Income Countries (HICs) in Europe, North America and Oceania. In these countries, urbanisation has slowed down as the majority of the population already live in cities. The urban population is ageing so the rate of natural increase has also slowed down.
• How does migration affect the rate of urbanisation?

  Rural to urban migration is the main cause of urbanisation. Most of these migrants are young. They migrate from the countryside to cities because of the pull factors, like jobs and a better education.
• How does natural increase affect the rate of urbanisation?

  The young population in many cities leads to high rates of natural increase. Cities also tend to have better health care than rural areas, so death rates are lower and life expectancy is higher.
• How does location affect the rate of urbanisation?

  Historically, cities have grown on rivers, coasts and other busy transport routes where trade can thrive. Even today, many of the world’s megacities are ports, which are a good location for trade.
• How does economic development affect the rate of urbanisation?

  Cities that trade are also a good place for business, so they grow economically. It is economic growth that creates jobs, which attract people, and it is people who bring ideas and enterprise which cities thrive on.
• What are the push factors of rural-urban migration?

  These are factors that encourage people to move away from a place.

  Examples include:

  • Natural disasters e.g. drought.

  • War and Conflict.

  • Mechanisation on farms and so loss of employment

  • Lack of opportunities.

  • Lack of employment.
• What are the pull factors of rural-urban migration?

  These are factors that encourage to move people to a place.

  Factors are sometimes perceived. Examples include:

  • More Jobs .

  • Better education & healthcare.

  • Increased quality of life.

  • Following family members.
• Megacities.

  A megacity is a city with over 10 million people living there.

  The first megacities had emerged by 1950 – New York City (USA) and Tokyo (Japan). There were around 34 megacities in the year 2020. The largest was Tokyo with a population of 37 million people. More than two thirds of current megacities are located in either NEEs or LICs. The majority of megacities are located in Asia.

  The number of megacities are predicted to increase from 34 to 41 by 2030.

  
• Where is Lagos located and what is it like?

  Lagos is located on the south west coast of Nigeria, in the west of Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea. It is:

  • Africa’s largest city by area

  • Africa’s second largest city by population

  Population: 15.4 million (estimated 2022).

  Lagos is growing by 500,000 people per year.

  
• Why is Lagos important nationally/internationally?

  80% of Nigeria's industry is located in Lagos. 25% of Nigeria's wealth is generated in Lagos. Nollywood (Nigerian film industry) is based in Lagos. Contain's several airports and sea ports to bring people into the country. 80% of flights into Western Africa arrive in Lagos. Lagos is the main financial centre for the whole of Western Africa. Each year they host the 'Lagos international trade fair'.
• What are the causes of growth in Lagos?

  Push factors from the rural areas:

  • Lack of rural jobs.
  • Civil war/violence.
  • Poor soil quality.
• What are the causes of growth in Lagos?

  Pull factors into Lagos:

  • Better paid jobs.
  • Better infrastructure.
  • Better access to services.
• Economic Opportunities in Lagos:

  Construction and other higher paid jobs are available in places like Eko Atlantic. Places like Eko Atlantic attract further business investment. Because there are so many people in Lagos, people find work in the informal sector in places like Olusosson rubbish dump. This earns them some form of income which they would not have otherwise. 80% of flights into Western Africa land in Lagos. This growing population has created a large market for goods and services in Lagos.
• Social Challenges in Lagos:

  60% of Lagos residents live in squatter settlements such as Makoko. 250,000 people live in houses, mostly on stilts in Lagos lagoon where there is little infrastructure. Life expectancy is around 40. Only 10% of Lagos residents have access to a piped water supply.
• Social Opportunities in Lagos:

  Over 2/3 of Lagos residents have completed their secondary education. Lagos has better access to services than rural Nigeria (such as health centres). Infrastructure in urban areas like Lagos is better than rural areas. Electricity allows for cooking and lighting and also powers things like water treatment works.
• Economic Challenges in Lagos:

  Too many people competing for jobs means there is widespread unemployment. Many people are forced to work in the informal sector where there is no tax revenue for the government, and jobs are unregulated.
• What are the environmental challenges in Lagos?

  • Only 40% of waste is officially collected in Lagos. The rest ends up dumped around in different areas.
  • Factory emissions are not controlled so end up polluting Lagos lagoon.
  • 40% of new cars in the whole of Nigeria are registered in Lagos, leading to traffic congestion and air pollution.
• What are the problems due to congestion and air pollution in Lagos?

  • Over 11,000 premature deaths each year due to air pollution.
  • Air pollution levels 5x internationally recommendedlevels.


  Average commuter spends 3 hours per day in ‘goslows.’
• What are the solutions to traffic congestion and air pollution in Lagos?

  • Lagos transport masterplan includes new public transport such as ferries and railway lines.
  • New airport built outside the city away from congested areas.
• What are the problems due to lack of housing in Lagos?

  • Squatter settlements such as Makoko grow.
  • Lack of sanitation and infrastructure in squatter settlements.
  • Life expectancy is around 40 in Makoko.
• What are the solutions for lack of housing in Lagos?

  • Self help schemes set up to help residents improve their homes and surroundings.
  • Out of town housing is being built for people living in squatter settlements to encourage them to move out.
• What are the problems due to lack of jobs in Lagos?

  • Workers in the informal sector earn little money and have no sick pay.
  • No tax is paid to the government so services suffer.
  • Lagos’ informal sector is worth over half as much as the formal economy ($48 bn v $90 bn).
• What are the solutions for the lack of jobs in Lagos? 

  • Invest in services to encourage business.
  • Increase investment in rural areas to prevent people migrating into Lagos, and encourage counterurbanisation.
• What problems do the urban poor face in Lagos?

  • Overall housing shortfall of 2.5 million homes.
  • Annual population growth of 500,000 people in Lagos.
  • High unemployment and over 60% of Lagos residents living in poor conditions in squatter settlements such as Makoko.
• What is being done through Eko Atlantic to improve the lives of the urban poor in Lagos?

  • Reclaiming 10 km2 of land from the Atlantic Ocean and developing on it.
  • Accommodation created for around 500,000 people and jobs created for 150,000 people.
  • Protected by 8km long ‘great wall of Lagos’ sea wall to protect from flooding.
• What are the advantages of Eko Atlantic?

  • Brings direct investment into Lagos.
  • Creats new habitable space in an overcrowded city.
  • Good publicity for Lagos which might attract new transnational corporations (TNCs).
  • Stimulates the economic multiplier effect in the local economy.
  • Creates jobs in the new businesses and creates short term jobs in the construction industry
• What are the disadvantages of Eko Atlantic?

  • Traditional fishermen will have livelihoods disrupted by the construction at the coast.
  • Water pollution caused and marine life disturbed.
  • Affected communities were not consulted in the planning of Eko Atlantic.
  • Sand being used to reclaim the land may not be replaced naturally so might increase coastal erosion rate.
  • Jobs not permanent and unlikely to go to the poorest residents in Lagos.
• Where is London? What is it like?

  • London is located in south east England, on the banks of the River Thames.
  • Population – 9 million (estimated).
  • London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and has been since it was established as a city almost 2,000 years ago.
• Why did London grow?

  • Built at the lowest bridging point along the River Thames.• Original site of a port due to tidal nature of the river.• Employment opportunities provided during industrialisation.
• What is London's National importance?

  • London is the UK’s largest and wealthiest city.
  • London brings in 22% of the UK’s GDP, but has only 12% of the population.
  • London is a national centre for media and education (3 of the top 10 universities), and the seat of government.
• What is London's International importance?

  • Along with New York, London is one of the major global financial centres.
  • Second most connected place in the world by air travel after Dubai. Home to 5 international airports.
  • Home to the headquarters of major global TNCs.
• What are the social/cultural opportunities in London?


  • London is one of the world’s most culturally diverse cities.
  • Multiculturalism is celebrated at events such as the Notting Hill Carnival.
  • Over 300 languages are spoken across London.
  • Advantages:
  • This multiculturalism brings many advantages to London from experiencing different foods, to exposure to other cultures and religions.
  • Challenges:
  • The main challenge to multiculturalism is around integration: how can all of these people from different cultures and places live alongside each other and all have equal access to services?
• What are the environmental opportunities in London?

  • Urban greening is where there is an increase in the amount of green space in an urban area.
  • Green space helps to reduce temperatures (combatting the urban heat island), creates habitats and collects rainwater.
  • London is already made up of 38% open green space (parkland) and 24% domestic gardens.
  • Over 700 green rooves have been mapped as part of a project by the Greater London Authority.
  • New and recent developments (such as the Olympic Park) have to include planning for green space within the development.
• What are the Economic Opportunities in London?

  • London is the largest contributor to the UK economy.
  • London residents are more likely to be employed in a managerial or professional position than elsewhere in the UK.
  • 22% of London’s workers are employed in finance/insurance, compared to only 10% of the UK as a whole.
  • London attracts around 30 million visitors each year, bringing money into the economy and providing jobs in the tourist sector.
• What is the problem with transport in London?

  • Population continues to grow, and public transport is already at capacity.
  • 25% of journeys already made on public transport.
  • Only 2% of journeys were made by bike.
  • Air pollution rising in some parts of London due to traffic and congestion.
• What have Transport for London (TfL) done about London's transport issues?

  • Introduced a congestion charge in central London. Drivers pay a fee to drive in/out of the zone. This should discourage people from wanting to drive.
  • Introduced new methods of transport such as Crossrail (The Elizabeth Line) and Bike Superhighways
  • Updated transport such as the underground (used for 5 million journeys per day!).
• What is the Cross Rail (The Elizabethan Line)?

  • This is a new East-West railway line opened in 2022 (it was late!) and costing £18 billion. Runs from Reading (west) to Shenfield (east) and brings 1.5 million people within a 45 minute journey into central London.
  • 24 trains per hour at peak times through central London (1,500 passengers per train).
  • Journey times are reduced and travel into/across London is made more reliable and frequent.