External- Class Differences in Achievement

• Cultural Deprivation

  The theory that many working class and Black children are inadequately socialised and lack the 'right' culture needed for educational success.
• Language

  Hubbs-Tait et al: found when parents use language which challenges their children to evaluate their own thinking, they have better cognitive performance. By contrast, less educated parents use language which only requires children to make simple descriptive statements, resulting in lower performance.
• Language

  Bereiter and Engelmann: claim that language used in working class homes is deficient. Only communicating through gestures, single words, or disjointed phrases. Meaning children fail to develop the necessary language skills preventing them from abstract thinking, and being able to use language to compare, explain and enquire. They are unable to take advantage of opportunities school offers.
• Language

  Bernstein: identified different speech codes between the working and middle classes.

  The different speech codes give middle class pupils an advantage as the teachers, textbooks and exams require the elaborative code. Therefore it is seen as the 'correct' way to speak and write as it enables effective analysing and reasoning, essential for educational success. Early socialisation into this code allows them to be more fluent and adapt to school more easily, avoiding exclusion.
• Language: Restricted Code

  Bernstein:

  Typically used by the working class, characterised by limited vocabulary, short and unfinished words, and grammatically simple sentences. Making their speech predictable, involving single words or gestures. It is descriptive and not analytic. Language is context-bound (assumes the listener shares the same experiences).
• Language: Elaborative Code

  Bernstein:

  Typically used by the middle class, characterised by wider vocabulary which is based on longer grammatically complex sentences. Their language conveys more abstract ideas, and it is context-free (they can use language to spell meanings explicitly for the listener).
• Parent's Education

  Douglas: found that working class parents placed less value on education; they were then less ambitious for their children. Meaning they gave less encouragement: they didn't visit the schools as frequently which meant they weren't discussing their child's progress. This then caused the children to have lower motivation and achievement.
• Parent's Education: Parenting Style

  Feinstein: argues that middle class parents tend to be more educated which enables their children to be socialised more adequately.

  Educated parenting style emphasises consistent discipline and high expectations; supporting achievement through active learning and exploration.

  Less educated parents have harsh, inconsistent discipline which emphasises 'doing as you are told'- this prevents independence and self-control. This causes poorer motivation and problems interacting with teachers.
• Parent's Education: Educational Behaviours

  Feinstein: educated parents are more aware of what is necessary to assist their child's educational progress; such as: reading to children, teaching poems/letters/songs/rhymes, helping with homework, and being actively involved with schooling. The more successful in establishing good relationships with teachers and better guiding children's interactions, they then recognise the educational value of going to the library and museums.
• Parent's Education: Use of Income

  Bernstein and Young: better educated parents earn more and spend more money on ways to promote their child's education. They found middle class mothers were more likely to buy educational toys/books/activities which encourage reasoning skills and intellectual development. Working class homes lack these resources, children then start school without the intellectual skills needed for progress.
• Working Class Subculture- Fatalism

  Theorist- Sugarmann

  The belief there is nothing you can do to change your status, contrasting middle class values that emphasise personal efforts can change your position.

  Working class internalise the beliefs of their subculture through socialisation, resulting in their underachievement. M/c jobs are secure, and W/c don't have a career structure which prevents them from advancing.
• Working Class Subculture- Collectivism

  Theorist- Sugarmann

  The value of being part of a group is seen as more important than individual success, contrasting the middle class belief that individuals shouldn't be held back by group loyalties.
• Working Class Subculture- Immediate Gratification

  Theorist- Sugarmann

  Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices to get rewards in the future, contrasting with middle class who emphasise deferred gratification.
• Working Class Subculture- Present-Time Orientation

  Theorist- Sugarmann

  Seeing the present as more important than the future, meaning that working class don't have long-term goals.
• Compensatory Education

  Way to tackle Cultural Deprivation. They provide extra resources to schools in deprived areas, intervening early in the socialisation process to compensate for deprivations experienced at home. An example is Operation Head Start who use 'planned enrichment' to instil students with achievement motivation.

  They improve parenting skills and have home visits with educational psychologists.
• AO3- Cultural Deprivation

  Keddie: The Myth of Cultural Deprivation

  Claims this explanation is 'victim-blaming'. They dismiss the idea that failure can be blamed on a culturally deprived background; as a child cannot be deprived of their own culture. They are purely culturally different. Failing because they are in a system dominated by middle class values- the school should recognise this and challenge teachers with anti-w/c prejudices.
• AO3- Cultural Deprivation

  Troyna and Williams: argue that the problem isn't with the child's language, it is the schools attitude towards it. Teachers have a 'speech hierarchy' where they label middle class speech at the top, followed by working class, and Black speech at the bottom.
• AO3- Cultural Deprivation

  Blackstone and Mortimore: claim that parents aren't uninterested in their child's learning, they attend less parent's evenings as they work longer and less regular hours; or they are put off by the middle class atmosphere. They wish to help their child's progress, but lack the knowledge to do so. Evidence shows that schools with a high w/c student population have poor parent-school contacts which makes it hard for parent's to stay connected about their child's progress.
• Material Deprivation

  Refers to poverty and a lack of the material necessities which prevent educational success. Such as inadequate housing and income.
• Housing

  Flaherty: claims finance problems within the family are significant factors in younger children's non-attendance at school.

  Overcrowding can directly make it harder for children to study, have space for educational activities, and can disrupt their sleep. The indirect effects are that development can be impaired due to a lack of space to play and explore. Frequent moves can disrupt education. Children's health and wellness can be impacted- greater chance of accidents, cold/damp housing causes psychological distress and infections.
• Diet and Health

  Howard: notes that children from poorer homes have a lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals- this affects their health and weakens their immune systems. A lowered energy level then results in more absences from school and difficultly concentrating.
• Diet and Health

  Wilkinson: claims children from poorer homes are more likely to have behavioural problems; among 10-year-olds a lower social class means a higher rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders. All of which have a negative effect on their progress.
• The Cost of Education

  Tanner et al: found the cost of items like transport, uniforms, books, computers place a heavy burden on poor families. Meaning children have to make do with 'hand-me-downs' and cheaper equipment which can result in isolation, stigma, and low self-esteem.

  Smith and Noble: poverty acts as a barrier to learning in other ways (like private schooling or tuition).
• Financial Support

  Ridge: found that children in poverty were less likely to accept Free School Meals, and instead would take on jobs like babysitting, cleaning and paper rounds- this then has a negative effect on schooling.
• Fear of Debt

  Callender and Jackson: found working class students were more 'debt averse' (viewing it negatively), seeing more costs than benefits when going to university. They were then 5 times less likely to apply than 'debt tolerant' middle class students.
• Fear of Debt

  Reay: found that working class students were more likely to apply to local universities, so they could live at home and save money on transport. Though this prevents them from attending higher status universities which makes it harder to obtain higher class degrees.
• Fear of Debt

  Drop Out Rates:

  London Metropolitan (large working class intake) had a 16.6% drop out rate.

  Oxford (large private school intake) had a 1.5% drop out rate.
• Cultural Capital Defined

  The knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class. Seeing their culture as a form of capital (wealth) which gives an advantage to those who possess it.
• Cultural Capital (1)

  Bourdieu: both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement, they are interrelated. Types of Capital: 'economic' or wealth, 'educational' or qualifications, and 'cultural'. Arguing the middle class tend to posses more of all 3.
• Cultural Capital (2)

  It is claimed through socialisation, middle class children acquire the ability to grasp, analyse and express abstract ideas- making them more likely to develop intellectual interests and an understanding of what is required for educational success. They are then rewarded with qualifications which helps to further the transmission of dominant middle class culture.

  Working class find their culture as devalued and inferior, a lack of CC then causes exam failure which they respond to through deviance.
• Economic and Educational Capital

  Bourdieu: agues educational, economic and cultural capital can be converted into another. Middle class children with CC can convert this into EduC through gaining qualifications at school. Parents with EcoC can use this to give their children higher EduC by paying extra tuition.

  Leech and Campos: a Coventry study found that middle class are more able to afford houses in catchment areas for schools high on league tables- 'selection-by-mortgage' then drives up the costs of homes in this area and excludes working class.
• Testing Bourdieu's Ideas (Procedure)

  Sullivan: used questionnaires to survey 465 pupils, assessing their cultural capital. Asking about a range of activities, testing their vocabulary, and knowledge of cultural figures.

  Findings show that those who read complex fiction and watched documentaries developed more cultural capital.
• Testing Bourdieu's Ideas (Conclusions)

  Pupils with the greatest CC were children of graduates, and were more likely to do well in GCSEs.

  Though found that CC only accounted for part of the class difference, as pupils of a different class level had the same CC but middle class still did better academically. Concluding greater resources and aspirations explains the remainder of the class gap.