Ethnic Differences in Achievement

• Ethnic Group Defined:

  Lawson and Gerrod define an ethnic group as people who share the same common history, customs, and identity; as well as, in most cases, language and religion- they see themselves as a distinct unit.
• Intellectual and Linguistic Skills

  Children from Black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences, leaving them poorly equipped for school as they have yet to develop reasoning skills.

  Bereiter and Englemann consider the language spoken as inadequate for educational success; seeing it as ungrammatical, disjointed and incapable of expressing abstract ideas.
• Intellectual and Linguistic Skills

  There is also concern for children who don't speak English as their first language, seeing it as holding them back academically.

  However, official statistics show that this isn't a major factor. In 2010 pupils with English as their first language were only 3.2 points ahead when gaining 5 GCSEs grades A*-C.
• Attitudes and Values

  A lack of motivation is a major cause of failure among Black children. Most children are socialised into mainstream culture which instils competitiveness and ambition which promotes deferred gratification. Cultural Deprivation Theorists argue that some Black children are socialised into subcultures which instil fatalistic attitudes that don't value education.
• Family Structure and Parental Support

  Moynihan argues that many Black families are headed by a lone mother (matrifocal), meaning their children are deprived of adequate care due to struggles faced in the absence of a male breadwinner. Boys then lack an adequate role model of male achievement- which promotes a cycle of inadequately socialised children from unstable families becoming inadequate parents.
• Family Structure and Parental Support

  New Right- Murray: argues a high rate of lone parenthood and a lack of male role models causes underachievement of some minorities.

  Scruton: sees low achievement of some ethnic groups as resulting from a failure to embrace mainstream British culture.
• Family Structure and Parental Support

  Pryce: Asian pupils are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racism which gives them a greater sense of self-worth. Black Caribbean culture is less resistant to racism which means many have a low self-worth and underachieve.

  The difference is due to colonialism- slavery was culturally devastating for Black families, it meant they lost their language, religion and family structure- though Asian family structures weren't destroyed by colonialism.
• Fathers, Gangs and Culture

  Sewell: argues the absence of fatherly nurturing and 'tough love' means boys end up finding it difficult to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence- street gangs then offer them 'loyalty and love'. Presenting boys with media-inspired role models of anti-school Black masculinity. Speaking standard English and doing well in school is seen as 'selling out' to the White establishment. Nurtured by MTV.
• Asian Families

  Sewell: claims many Black families have absent fathers; though Indian and Chinese pupils benefit from supportive families which have an 'Asian work ethic' and place high value on education.

  Lupton argues that adult authority in Asian families is like the hierarchy modelled at school. Respectful behaviour towards adults is expected from children, meaning parents are more likely to be supportive of school behaviour policies.
• White Working Class Families

  Lupton: studied 4 mainly working class schools- two being predominantly white, one being largely Pakistani, and the other being ethnically mixed. Found that teachers reported poorer levels of behaviour in White w/c schools despite fewer being on FSM. Teachers blamed this on lower levels of parental support and a (-) attitude parents had towards their education. Conversely, ethnic minority parents were more likely to see education as a way of progressing.
• Criticisms of Cultural Deprivation Theory

  Driver: it ignores the (+) effects of ethnicity on achievement; seeing Black Caribbean family as functional as it provides girls with a (+) role model of independence and strength- explaining this is why Black girls perform better than Black boys.
• Criticisms of Cultural Deprivation Theory

  Lawrence: criticises Pryce's view that Black pupils fail as their culture is weak and that they lack self-worth. Instead arguing that Black pupils underachieve due to racism.
• Criticisms of Cultural Deprivation Theory

  Keddie sees it as a 'victim-blaming' explanation, ethnic minority pupils are culturally different, not deprived. They are underachieving because schools are ethnocentric- biased in favour of White culture.
• Propositions away from Compensatory Education

  Critics argue compensatory education schemes are used to impose a dominant White culture, so they propose two alternatives:

  Multicultural Education- a policy which recognises and values minority cultures and includes them within the curriculum.

  Anti-Racist Education- a policy that challenges the prejudice and discrimination that exists in schools and wider society.
• Material Deprivation Defined:

  Refers to the lack of physical necessities that are seen as essential for life today, and needed for educational success. Ethnic minorities are more likely to be working class, so suffer from material deprivation.
• Material Deprivation

  Flaherty: Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are 3 times more likely than Whites to be in the poorest fifth of the population.

  Africans, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are 3 times more likely to be unemployed than Whites.

  15% of minority groups live in overcrowded homes (2% for Whites).

  Pakistanis are 2 times more likely to be in unskilled jobs compared to Whites.
• Material Deprivation

  Swann Report: social class differences account for a high proportion of differences in achievement between ethnic groups.
• Material Deprivation- Racism in Wider Society

  Some sociologists argue that material deprivation in ethnic minorities is due to racism in society.

  Rex: shows racial discrimination leads to social exclusion which worsens the poverty faced; in housing, they are more likely to be forced into substandard accommodation than White people of the same class.
• Material Deprivation- Racism in Wider Society

  Woods: shows in employment there is evidence of direct and deliberate discrimination. They sent 3 closely matching job applications to almost 1000 job vacancies. One appeared to be from a White person, the other two were members of an ethnic group. They found 1 in 16 ethnic applications were offered an interview, against 1 in 9 for White applicants.
• Material Deprivation- Evaluation

  Social class has an impact on ethnic educational achievement- it may then be possible that class is the biggest indicator and that ethnicity isn't as important in predicting achievement. Perhaps the fact that ethnic minorities are more likely to be working class causes this difference.

  Though, some ethnic minorities still perform well despite being working class- e.g. Chinese pupils, it may then be cultural factors which are most relevant.
• Teacher Labelling

  Gillborn and Youdell: found teachers were quicker to discipline Black pupils than others for the same behaviour, arguing this is a result of their 'racialised expectations'- they expected bad behaviour and misinterpreted pupils which meant Black pupils feel their abilities were underestimated.

  Concluding that conflict stems from racialised stereotypes rather than the pupils behaviour.
• Teacher Labelling

  Bourne: found that schools tended to label Black boys as a threat, these negative labels then lead to exclusions- affecting their achievement. Only 1 in 5 excluded pupils achieve 5 GCSEs.

  Osler: found as well as exclusion, Black pupils were more likely to suffer from unrecorded unofficial exclusions and 'internal exclusions'; being placed in PRU which limits their access to the mainstream curriculum.
• Teacher Streaming

  Foster: found that teacher's stereotypes of Black pupils as badly behaved could result in them being placed in lower streams than those with the same ability. Causing the SFP and widening the ethnic gap in achievement.
• Asian Pupils

  Wright: studied a multi-ethnic primary school and found that Asian pupils were the victims of teacher labelling- finding that teachers held ethnocentric views, despite claiming they were committed to equality. Teacher's assumed children would have poor grasp of English so left them out of class discussions, or used simplistic language when speaking to them.

  Causing Asian pupils to feel isolated when teachers disapproved of their customs or mispronounced their names. Teachers didn't see them as a threat, but as a problem they could ignore, causing marginalisation.
• Pupil Identities- 'The Ideal Pupil Identity'

  Archer: claims teacher's dominant discourse defines ethnic minority pupils' identities as lacking the favoured qualities of the 'ideal pupil' which makes 3 categories.

  THE IDEAL PUPIL IDENTITY: White, middle class pupil, masculinised identity with a normal sexuality. This pupil is seen as achieving in the 'right way', through natural ability.
• Pupil Identities- 'The Pathologised Pupil Identity'

  Archer: claims teacher's dominant discourse defines ethnic minority pupils' identities as lacking the favoured qualities of the 'ideal pupil' which makes 3 categories.

  THE PATHOLOGISED PUPIL IDENTITY: Asian pupil, feminised identity, seen as conformist, they are 'over-achievers', achieving in the wrong way- by hard work and not natural initiative.
• Pupil Identities- 'The Demonised Pupil Identity'

  Archer: claims teacher's dominant discourse defines ethnic minority pupils' identities as lacking the favoured qualities of the 'ideal pupil' which makes 3 categories.

  THE DEMONISED PUPIL IDENTITY: Black or White working class pupils, hypersexualised identity, they are seen as unintelligent, peer led, and culturally deprived.
• Pupil Responses and Subcultures (Outlined)

  Fuller: a group of Black Year 11 girls in London comprehensive school; they were untypical- high achievers in a school where they were placed in low streams.
• Pupil Responses and Subcultures (Response)

  Fuller: they channelled their anger into the pursuit of educational success; they didn't seek approval from teachers who they regarded as racist, and they didn't limit their choice of friends to only those who succeeded academically. They only conformed to schoolwork- working consistently in secret as they preferred to rely on their own efforts and the impartiality of exams, trying to maintain a (+) self-image.

  This demonstrates individuals can prevent the SFP.
• Teacher's Racist Attitudes: Mirza

  Colour Blind- believe pupils are equal, but in practice allow racism to go unchallenged.

  Liberal Chauvinists- believe Black pupils are culturally deprived and have low expectations.

  Overt Racists- believe Black pupils are inferior and actively discriminate against them.

  Students then became selective about who they would ask careers advice from, and would limit their opportunities by not choosing certain lessons- though they had high self-esteems , these strategies restricted their opportunities.
• Black Boys Responses to (-) Teacher Labelling

  Theorist: Sewell

  The Rebels- most visible and influential group, though only a small minority, often excluded by school as they rejected its values. They expressed their opposition through conforming to the 'anti-school Black macho lad'- believing they were superior as it links to sexual experience. Saw White boys as effeminate.
• Black Boys Responses to (-) Teacher Labelling

  Theorist: Sewell

  The Conformists- the largest group, they are keen to succeed and therefore accept the school's values. They have friends from different ethnic groups, and aren't part of subcultures. They are anxious to avoid stereotyping from teachers and peers. Disliked by 'The Rebels'.
• Black Boys Responses to (-) Teacher Labelling

  Theorist: Sewell

  The Retreatists- a small minority of isolated individuals who are disconnected from the school and Black subcultures. They are despised by 'The Rebels'.
• Black Boys Responses to (-) Teacher Labelling

  Theorist: Sewell

  The Innovators- the second largest group, like Fuller's girls, they were a pro-education but anti-school group. They valued success, but didn't seek approval from teachers, so only conformed to the schoolwork which distances them from 'The Conformists' but allowing them credibility with 'The Rebels' whilst maintaining positive academic achievement.
• Black Boys Response to (-) Teacher Labelling

  Theorist: Sewell

  Conclusion- the four categories demonstrates that only a small minority of Black pupils match the 'Black macho lad' stereotype ('The Rebels'); yet teachers still see all Black boys in this way.

  This contributes to their underachievement- these attitudes are all responses to racism; hence Sewell argues the external factors (the street culture and stereotypes) result in internal disadvantages.
• Evaluation of Labelling and Pupil Responses

  Marxists argue that there is a danger of seeing these stereotypes as the product of teacher's individual prejudices, rather than institutional racism within the education system. For example, Gillborn and Youdell argue that publishing league tables caused to large numbers of Black and working class pupils being entered into lower tier exams which limits their future opportunities.

  It is deterministic- though Mirza does show that strategies devised to avoid teacher labelling can too limit opportunities.
• Internal Factors- Institutional Racism

  Troyna and Williams: argue to explain ethnic differences in achievement, it needs to be examined further than individual teacher labelling. Instead looking at how the school routinely and unconsciously discriminate against ethnic minorities.

  Individual Racism- prejudice of individual teachers and others.

  Institutional Racism- discrimination built into the way an institution operates.
• Critical Race Theory

  Sees racism as an ingrained feature of society. It is a "more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts [... instead] it originates in the operation of established and respected forces in society".

  Roithmayr: describes it as 'Locked-Inequality', the scale of historical discrimination is so large, there is no longer any need for conscious intent to discriminate- it becomes self-perpetuating.

  Gillborn: ethnic inequality is so deeply rooted within the education system, it is now an "inevitable feature".
• Critical Race Theorists- Marketisation and Segregation

  Gillborn: marketisation gives schools more scope to select students, allowing negative stereotypes to influence admission decisions.

  Moore and Davenport: study in America showed that selection procedures caused ethnic segregation. Finding primary school reports were used to screen out those with language difficulties, and the application process being hard for non-English speaking parents. Causing an ethically stratified education system.
• Critical Race Theorists- The Ethnocentric Curriculum

  Describes a curriculum which gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of the dominant ethnic group. This then builds a racial bias in the everyday workings of the school.

  Ball: the National Curriculum promotes an attitude of 'little Englandism' as it tries to recreate a 'mythical age of empire and past glories'.

  Coard: claims this causes underachievement as it promotes the image of Black people as inferior, undermining their self-esteem.