Enzymes consist of amino acid chains folded into intricate structures.
The active site, a specific region of the enzyme, binds to substrates, facilitating chemical reactions.
Temperature influences molecular motion, affecting enzyme-substrate interactions.
pH alters the enzyme's charge, impacting its ability to bind substrates.
Substrate and enzyme concentrations determine reaction rates.
Amylase, found in saliva, initiates the breakdown of starch into sugars.
Catalase protects cells from damage by breaking down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
DNA polymerase is essential for replicating DNA strands accurately during cell division.
ATP hydrolysis, catalyzed by ATPases, releases energy stored in its phosphate bonds.
This energy powers cellular processes, coupling ATP breakdown with reactions that require energy.
Chlorophyll absorbs primarily red and blue wavelengths, reflecting green light, crucial for photosynthesis.
Carotenoids absorb blue and green light, enhancing light absorption for photosynthesis and providing photoprotection.
Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes, where chlorophyll absorbs light energy to generate ATP and NADPH.
The Calvin Cycle, in the stroma, uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into glucose, a process called carbon fixation.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, yielding more ATP through glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Anaerobic respiration, like fermentation, generates ATP without oxygen, typically producing lactic acid or ethanol.
ATP comprises adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
Chlorophyll is the dominant pigment in plant chloroplasts, vital for photosynthesis.
Carotenoids are found in various fruits and vegetables, contributing to their vibrant colors and antioxidant properties.
Alcoholic fermentation, by yeast and some bacteria, produces ethanol and carbon dioxide from sugars.
Lactic acid fermentation, prevalent in muscle cells, generates lactic acid from pyruvate during anaerobic conditions.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat from the surroundings, like photosynthesis converting light energy into chemical energy.
Exothermic reactions release heat, such as the breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration.
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, breaking down glucose into pyruvate and producing ATP and NADH.
The Krebs Cycle, in the mitochondrial matrix, further oxidizes pyruvate, generating NADH and FADH2.
The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Chemiosmosis, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, generate ATP through the transfer of electrons and the flow of protons.
Oxidative phosphorylation couples ATP synthesis with the flow of electrons in the ETC.
The Krebs Cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a central metabolic pathway occurring in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
The Krebs Cycle is a series of chemical reactions that completes the oxidative breakdown of glucose-derived pyruvate, ultimately generating energy in the form of ATP and high-energy electron carriers, NADH and FADH2.
Phosphate groups are the key to ATP’s function as a cellular energy carrier.
Adenine: A nitrogenous base derived from purine, which is attached to the sugar molecule ribose.
Ribose: A five-carbon sugar molecule forming the backbone of ATP.
Three Phosphate Groups: Attached to the ribose sugar in a chain-like structure.
Ribose is a pentose sugar, meaning it has five carbon atoms.
NADH, or Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) in its reduced form, is a coenzyme found in all living cells.
NADH plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and other metabolic pathways as a carrier of electrons and protons (H⁺).