The escalation of tension

• Why did Hitler want troops in the Rhineland?

  • The Rhineland is the area around the River Rhine in Germany
  • It borders France and the river itself makes a nature defence against invasion
  • Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the Rhineland remained in Germany, but troops, weapons or fortifications were not allowed in the area
  • Hitler knew that in order to gain Lebensraum in the east he would have to invade other countries
  • This would most likely provoke a response from countries like Britain and France, so Hitler had to start defending Germany's borders in the west
  • The remilitarisation of the Rhineland was key to this
• Entering the Rhineland

  • In 1935 France and the USSR signed the Franco-Soviet pact, an agreement to support each other if either was attacked by Germany
  • Hitler used this pact to claim that Germany was under threat, having enemies on both the western and eastern fronts
  • He responded by sending troops into the Rhineland on 7 March 1936
  • The troops were greeted by civilians who gave them flowers
  • Hitler had been relying on such a welcome; many of the troops had arrived on bicycle and there was no air support
  • Hitler knew that his army was still small, and even instructed his generals that they were to retreat if they were greeted by any resistance
• Why didn't Britain react to the reoccupation of the Rhineland?

  • Many Britons felt that Germany had the right to protect their own borders, and so they shouldn't have to intervene
  • British troops were already busy dealing with the Italian invasion of Abyssinia
  • The Depression hit Britain hard; the nation could not afford to get involved in foreign affairs
  • Many people believed that Hitler was simply reclaiming what was rightfully his
• Why didn't France react to the reoccupation of the Rhineland?

  • Politicians in France were busy fighting a general election. No one wanted to be responsible for plunging France into a war, as this would lose them votes
  • Much of the French army had been moved to Tunisia in case the situation in Abyssinia needed intervention
  • French generals believed that the German army entering the Rhineland was much larger and better equipped than it actually was. They were not prepared to risk their men
• Why didn't the League of Nations react to the reoccupation of the Rhineland?

  • The League was concentrating its efforts on Mussolini in Abyssinia
• Could Hitler have been stopped from reoccupying the Rhineland?

  • Army generals had warned Hitler that if France decided to uphold the Treaty of Versailles the German army was not big enough to fight
  • Financial ministers advised him that, if he failed, Germany would have to pay crippling fines
  • Hitler simply was not in the position to fight, so sending his men into the Rhineland was a huge gamble
• The remilitarisation of the Rhineland was a significant step in the road to war

  • Hitler grew confident that he could do as he pleased
  • Hitler turned his attention to considering how he might get around the other terms of the Treaty of Versailles, such as the forbidden Anschluss with Austria
  • Britain and France started rearming
  • France had treaties with several Eastern European countries, saying that it would protect them from Nazi invasion, but with the Rhineland strengthened, France now turned its attention to its own defences
• The remilitarisation of the Rhineland was a significant step in the road to war

  • The relationship between France and Britain was tested; the French felt that they could not rely on Britain if they were invaded by Hitler. To please France, Britain signed an agreement which strengthened the Locarno Treaty by reaffirming that they would protect each other, and Belgium, if Germany attacked
  • Mussolini decided that Hitler was a force to be reckoned with and agreed to sign a pact, the Rome-Berlin axis. The two also worked together to send weapons to Spain, where there was a civil war. This allowed Hitler to develop and test his weapons and allow his men to gain experience of war
  • Hitler was now ready to defend his western borders, which meant he could concentrate on Lebensraum in the East
• Potential ally of Hitler: Britain

  • Hitler admired the British monarchy and many of Britain's traditions and values
  • He was very keen to become allied and in 1936 he suggested a non-aggression pact that would last for 25 years; Hitler wanted the two countries to agree not to fight each other if a war broke out
  • Some British politicians wanted to cooperate with Hitler to avoid or postpone a war; they needed time to rearm, raise funds and persuade the British public that they had to fight, but they had no plan to sign up to an official alliance
  • In the Locarno Treaty Britain had agreed to support Germany if France attacked, but this also said they would support France if Germany were the aggressors
  • After the remilitarisation of the Rhineland the British strengthened their agreement with France and Belgium
• Potential ally of Hitler: Spain

  • In 1936 a bloody civil war had broken out in Spain between a group of nationalist Fascists led by General Franco and the democratic Republicans
  • Hitler and Mussolini sent troops and weapons to help Franco
  • Hitler had several reasons for doing this:
  • He could test out new weapons such as his Luftwaffe. His troops would also get experience of fighting in a war
  • If Franco won, Hitler would have gained an ally
  • The Communist USSR was supporting Franco's enemies, and Hitler had sworn to destroy Communism. If the Republicans won in Spain, Hitler feared that this would become a strong Communist state in the west. He was determined not to let this happen
  • Franco was delighted to have two new strong allies
  • By 1939 he was able to defeat the Republicans and became the dictator of Spain
  • Much of his victory was thanks to the support he received from the Nazis
• Potential ally of Hitler: Italy

  • Hitler could see that he had many things in common with Fascist Italy, yet Mussolini had prevented him from invading Austria after the Dolfuss Affair in 1934
  • But by 1936 things had changed
  • Hitler and Mussolini made the Rome-Berlin Axis
  • This was not a formal agreement, but the two countries said that they would work more closely together
  • Mussolini's relationship with Britain and France had suffered
  • Agreeing to work with Hitler meant that Mussolini was no longer isolated in Europe and that he could continue to rebuild a 'new Roman empire,' safe in the knowledge that he had an ally if other countries declared war in retaliation
• Potential ally of Hitler: Japan

  • In 1905 Japan had fought against the USSR and there was still rivalry and hatred between the two countries
  • The Communist USSR had developed the Comintern: a group dedicated to spreading Communism
  • On 25 November 1936 Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, an agreement that they would work together against Communism, which was later joined by Mussolini
  • By 1936 Japan had invaded much of China
  • However, the Japanese military was aware that China's giant neighbour, Russia, may step in to support China at any time
  • In agreeing to this pact with Hitler, Japan hoped that China would feel threatened and surrender to Japan
• Potential allies of Hitler: Italy and Japan

  • Italy, Japan and Germany entered talks to agree a triple alliance between them
  • However, they could not agree on the focus of it: Japan wanted the pact to focus on destroying the USSR while Mussolini wanted it to be a pact against Britain and France
  • Because of this disagreement, Japan was not involved in agreeing the first pact on 22 May 1939
  • Japanese relations with the USSR had been strained ever since the invasion of Manchuria
  • The formal name of this agreement was the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, however Mussolini nicknamed it the Pact of Steel; their armies would work together in any war that broke out
  • Having Hitler on his side was definitely an advantage for Mussolini, especially as his relationship with Britain and France was declining
  • Japan joined the Pact of Steel in 1940, making the three allies in the Second World War
• Why did Hitler want to unite with Austria?

  • Austria had ruled Germany for 600 years, they had similar cultures and shared a language
  • They had united in the First World War and Hitler was born in Austria
  • He felt that the two countries belonged together and would not rest until he had achieved Anschluss: the union of Germany and Austria
  • Anschluss could also get Hitler closer to fulfilling two of his foreign policy aims: uniting all German-speaking people in a Greater Germany and destroying the Treaty of Versailles in which Anschluss had been banned
  • Soon after Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1934 he had tried to unite Germany and Austria
  • The attempt had failed because of Mussolini's actions
  • But by March 1938 relations between Hitler and Mussolini were much improved
  • Following a lack of action from Britain and France when he remilitarised the Rhineland, Hitler was convince that nothing would now stand in his way
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 1

  • In 1934 Dollfuss had been replaced by Schuschnigg
  • Schuschnigg was worried about what had happened to Dollfuss, so he made a deal with the Nazis
  • They would support him, and in return he would give them key positions in the Austrian government
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 2

  • However, in January 1938, police raided the headquarters of the Austrian Nazi Party and discovered plans to overthrow Schuschnigg
  • There were also huge demonstrations against the government, led by the Austrian Nazis, in large towns like Vienna
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 3

  • Panicked, Schuschnigg met with Hitler
  • He travelled to Berchtesgaden, Hitler's mountain retreat in Germany
  • Hitler included three Nazi generals in the meeting to intimidate Schuschnigg
  • Schuschnigg had little say over the terms that they 'agreed' , which included appointing a Nazi solicitor named Seyss-Inquart as minister for the interior, with full power over the Austrian police
  • Nazis were also to take the roles of ministers of finance and war
  • Schuschnigg was also to lift any restrictions on the Nazi Party in Austria and release Nazis from prison
  • Hitler told Schuschnigg to sign the agreement and make the changes within three days, or he would invade
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 4

  • But Schuschnigg had a plan
  • He knew that Hitler wanted to claim that the people of Austria supported Anschluss, so he decided to uphold a plebiscite to allow the Austrian people to vote on the matter
  • If people voted against Anschluss, then Hitler would lose his excuse to invade
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 5

  • On 11 March 1938 Hitler demanded that the plebiscite be postponed
  • Schnuschnigg agreed, fearing he would not be supported by Britain, France or Italy if he defied Hitler
  • Hitler forced Schuschnigg to resign and made sure that Seyss-Inquart took over as chancellor
  • At 8pm that same day, Seyss-Inquart became chancellor and he immediately claimed that Austria was in a state of chaos and requested German help to restore peace
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 6

  • On 12 March Nazi troops invaded Austria
  • However, the invasion was badly planned, with tanks having to stop at Austrian petrol stations to fill up with fuel, and commanders using tourist guides to find their way to the capital, Vienna
  • Not a single drop of blood was shed and people cheered for the troops as they entered towns, giving gifts and flowers to the soldiers
  • Mussolini stayed true to the Anti-Comintern Pact and did not oppose the Anschluss
• Anschluss with Austria: Step 7

  • On 10 April Hitler held the plebiscite that he had discussed with Seyss-Inquart
  • There was a heavy presence from Nazi 'stormtroopers' and unsurprisingly 99 percent of Austrians voted in favour of the Anschluss
• How did Austria react to Anschluss?


  • Austria had lost a lot of pride and land in the Treaty of Saint Germain
  • As a result of this treaty, the country had also faced bankruptcy in 1921 and the Great Depression left people feeling hungry and hopeless
  • People in Austria had watched Hitler's rise in Germany with interest and many were delighted to unite with the Nazis, as they believed that it might make Austria great again
  • 99 percent of Austrians voted in favour of Anschluss
  • Austria was home to around 180,000 Jews, who knew that Anschluss marked a new era of uncertainty and danger for them
  • As soon as the Nazis invaded, anti-Semitic attacks took place on the streets of Austria
  • Jews were arrested at random and imprisoned or forced to scrub the streets or public toilets with their sacred prayer cloths
  • Thousands of Jews left Austria as quickly as they could, fearing that there was no future for them under Nazi control
• How did Germany react to Anschluss?

  • Hitler himself was so delighted with Anschluss that it is said that he shed tears when the document making the union legal was presented to him
  • Propaganda in Nazi-controlled newspapers told of the chaos in Austria (which had, of course, been started by Nazis under Hitler's instructions) and of Seyss-Inquart's request that Hitler should save the day and restore order
  • To many Germans Hitler was the hero who saved Austria from doom and despair
  • Germany was made stronger and Hitler had made another step towards uniting German speakers and righting the wrongs of the Treaty of Versailles
  • Austria was also rich in natural resources such as steel and iron ore, which could be used to fuel Nazi rearmament
  • In Germany, Anschluss was a propaganda success which led to heightened popularity for Hitler
• How did Britain react to Anschluss?

  • Most people in Britain felt that Austria and Germany were essentially the same country and that, therefore, they should be allowed to unite
  • There was opposition, from people such as Winston Churchill, who believed that if Austria wanted Anschluss, then Germany should have negotiated it, rather than sending its troops in
  • However, anti-war and anti-Versailles sentiments were still held by the majority of the population, so there was little appetite to get involved
• How did France react to Anschluss?

  • France had its own political problems that were seen as more pressing than the fate of Austria
  • Just two days before Hitler invaded Austria the whole French government had resigned because of unrest caused by economic issues
• How did Czechoslovakia react to Anschluss?

  • The Czech government heard the news of Anschluss with great fear
  • They knew Hitler wanted Lebensraum in the east and that Czechoslovakia would be the next country to come under Nazi pressure
  • They turned by Britain and France
  • The French were bound by a previous treaty to protect Czech independence and Britain felt that they should support their ally, France, so both agreed that they would support Czechoslovakia if Germany invaded
  • Chamberlain, the British prime minister, was determined to find a peaceful solution and asked Hitler what his intentions towards Czechoslovakia were
  • Hitler gave his word of honour that Czechoslovakia had nothing to fear from him, but he was not to be trusted
• Why did Hitler target the Sudetenland? Part 1

  • Czechoslovakia had been set up under the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to overturn
  • He saw invading the Sudetenland as the first step in destroying Czechoslovakia and 'righting' another 'wrong' of the Treaty of Versailles
  • Czechoslovakia had a big army and strong fortifications
  • The Sudetenland was home to forts, railways and industries, which could all be used as part of Hitler's war effort in years to come: the area had many factories producing glass and lignite (a type of coal), as well as the Skoda factory, which could be used to build tanks and other weapons
• Why did Hitler target the Sudetenland? Part 2

  • The Sudetenland was home to around three million German-speaking people
  • As a minority group (around 20 percent of the population), the German-speaking Sudetens claimed that they had been persecuted by the Czechs and used this as an excuse to start riots
  • Hitler used this as an excuse; he needed to step in to 'save' German speakers in the Sudetenland
• Why did Hitler target the Sudetenland? Part 3

  • The Sudetenland was a good base from which to launch an attack on Czechoslovakia
  • The area jutted into Germany, which surrounded it on three sides
  • Hitler thought that owning the Sudetenland would be a good strategic move, making his eventual invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia easier
• Appeasement

  • Using similar tactics to those used in Austria, Nazis in the Sudetenland started demonstrations to weaken the government
  • In May 1938 Hitler made it clear that he would fight for the region, claiming that German-speaking people were being treated badly by Czechs and needed protection
  • Having seen the devastating bombing campaigns of the Spanish on the continent and that civilians would become the target of the Luftwaffe
  • Politicians in Britain and France racked their brains to find a way to stop Hitler invading the Sudetenland, knowing that if he did, Britain and France could be obliged to protect Czechoslovakia and declare war
• Appeasement pt.2

  • On 15 September 1938, the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, flew to Berchtesgaden, Hitler's holiday home in the German mountains, to meet with the Fuhrer
  • Hitler told Chamberlain that the crisis could only be resolved if he was allowed the Sudetenland
  • Chamberlain was desperate to avoid war and agreed, so long as all actions were peaceful
  • Chamberlain's actions are known as 'appeasement' - the desire to avoid war by making concessions to others
  • Chamberlain then met with the Czechs and forced them to agree to Hitler's terms
  • On 22 September 1938 Chamberlain returned to Germany and met Hitler at Bad Godsberg, a town in western Germany
  • Hitler changed his demands
  • He now wanted the Sudetenland to be handed over by 1 October and insisted that Hungary and Poland should also received Czech land
  • This was not what Chamberlain had agreed to
• Why was Chamberlain so hopeful of 'peace in our time'?

  • Chamberlain's negotiations with Hitler seemed to be going nowhere and war looked certain to envelop Europe
  • Realising this, Mussolini suggested that the leaders of Germany, Britain, France and Italy should meet and discuss Czechoslovakia's borders, in the hope that this would stop the imminent conflict
  • On 29 September 1938 the four great powers of Europe signed an agreement at the Munich Conference
• What did Hitler demand?

  Hitler's demands were the same as they were when he met Chamberlain at Bad Godesberg:

  • The Czechoslovakian army must leave the Sudetenland and the area was to be handed over to Hitler
  • Hungary and Poland also wanted to claim land on their borders with Czechoslovakia. Hitler demanded that these claims be met
  • Hitler promised peace in Europe in return for the Sudetenland
• How did other countries react to Hitler's demands?

  • Chamberlain and Daladier, the French president, were only too happy to attend the conference in Munich, Germany, and to accept Hitler's demands
  • As a result, they felt that they were able to say that they had prevented war and that Czechoslovakia's borders were safe, as Hitler promised that they would respect them
  • Britain and France claimed that they had upheld their promise to Czechoslovakia to protect it from Hitler
  • In actual fact, Hitler had got everything he had demanded and on 10 October 1938 he marched his troops into the Sudetenland, an area that was not his, with no international opposition
  • Without the Sudetenland's fortifications the Czechs were defenceless and they fell to Nazi occupation
• How did other countries react to Hitler's demands? pt.2

  • The Czech government had not been consulted and now the people of the Sudetenland found themselves as the newest members of Greater Germany
  • German Sudetens greeted Nazi soldiers with flowers, just like the Austrians had in March 1938
  • However, the Czechs were fearful as the troops marched across their border
  • To them this was a real invasion
  • The USSR was also not consulted
  • Britain and France had been trying to guarantee Soviet support in case of war, but now Stalin felt betrayed and angry
  • On top of this, Hitler was getting closer to countries that the USSR had close relationships with in Eastern Europe
  • Stalin started questioning what he could do to prevent invasion by Hitler's forces and was convinced that that answer did not lie in diplomacy with Britain and France, who were losing a very powerful potential ally in the USSR
• Peace in our time?

  • In spite of all this Chamberlain claimed that the Munich Conference was a great victory for Britain
  • The day after the conference he met Hitler alone and the two of them signed an Anglo-German declaration
  • They agreed that they would never go to war against each other
  • As Chamberlain stepped out of his private plane on his return to Britain, he waved a copy of the Anglo-German declaration in the air and declared that he had achieved 'Peace in our time'
  • In Germany Hitler declared that Europe could look forward to a peaceful Christmas because of the Munich Agreement
• Why was the invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia significant?

  • This was the first time Hitler invaded a country where he had no claim. There were no German speakers in Czechoslovakia outside of the Sudetenland, and the country had not been German prior to the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France could no longer hide behind the claim that Hitler was simply taking what was rightfully his
  • Britain and France had alienated the USSR and lost a valuable ally against Hitler
  • Hitler completed his invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939. He broke the promises that he had made at the Munich Conference and to Chamberlain in the Anglo-German declaration. Chamberlain had to admit that his policy of appeasement had failed
  • Chamberlain promised Poland, which looked likely to be Hitler's next target, that Britain would guarantee its independence
• Timeline

  • 1933 - Hitler leaves the League of Nations Disarmament Conference
  • 13 January 1935 - People in the Saar vote to rejoin Germany
  • March 1935 - The Rearmament Rally
  • 18 June 1935 - Anglo-German Naval Agreement
  • 7 March 1936 - Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
  • July 1936 - Hitler and Mussolini support Franco in the Spanish Civil War
  • October 1936 - The Rome-Berlin Axis
  • 25 November 1936 - The Anti-Comintern Pact
  • 12 March 1938 - Anschluss with Austria
  • September 1938 - An agreement is reached in Munich which allows Hitler to have the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia
  • 15 March 1939 - After the Munich Agreement, Hitler invades Czechoslovakia
• Why didn't Britain or France do anything to stop Hitler?

  • Britain knew Hitler was building up his navy, so felt that if it made an agreement with him about how many ships he could have, then at least it could have some kind of control over the growth in order to retain its naval supremacy
• Why didn't Britain or France do anything to stop Hitler?

  • The Allies weren't happy, but there wasn't much they could do about this
  • No one was prepared to do anything about the uniting of the two countries