13. An introduction to AS level Organic Chemistry

• Alkenes: A hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n

  
• Halogenoalkanes: Halogenoalkanes are organic compounds containing a halogen atom and an alkane.

  
• Alcohols: A group of organic compounds that contain the functional group -OH.

  
• Aldehydes: An organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom at the end of a carbon chain.

  
• Carboxylic acids: An organic compound with a hydroxyl and carbonyl group, (-COOH group).

  
• Ester: an organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by an alkyl or other organic group.

  
• Amines: A functional group that contains a nitrogen atom, it has a functional group with a nitrogen atom having a lone pair.

  
• Ketones: An organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom in the middle of a carbon chain.

  
• Nitriles: An organic compound that has a −C≡N functional group.

  
• Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of C and H atoms only.
• Homologous series: A group of compounds that have the same functional group and the same general formula
• saturated hydrocarbons: Compounds only in which the C–C bonds are all single covalent bonds, resulting in the maximum number of hydrogen atoms in their molecules.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons: Compounds whose molecules contain C-C double bonds (or triple bonds).
• Structural isomers: Molecules with the same molecular formula but a different structural formula. There are 3 kinds, Chain isomers, Position isomers, and Functional group isomers.
• Chain isomers: The carbon chain is different.

  
• Position isomers: The functional groups can be in different positions on the carbon chain.

  
• Functional group isomers: Some compounds with the same molecular formula can contain different functional groups.

  • Aldehydes+Ketones
  • Carboxylic acids+Esters
  • Alkenes+cycloalkanes

  
• Stereoisomerism: Molecules with the same molecular and structural formulas but a different arrangement of the atoms in space.

  • E-Z isomers
  • Optical isomers
• E-Z isomers: Are also known as cis (z) and trans (E). Only possible in molecules with double bonded carbons.
• Cis (z) isomers: The atoms with the highest priority (higher atomic number) are on the same side of the double bond.
• Trans (E): The atoms with the highest priority (higher atomic number) are on the opposite sides of the double bond.
• Optical isomers: Molecules which are a mirror of each other, this happens when a C atom have 4 different groups attached to it, it has a chiral center (An atom with 4 different groups bonded to it in such a way that it has a non-superimposable mirror image).
• Addition reaction: A reaction in which two reactant molecules are joined together to form a single product molecule.
• Substitution reaction: A reaction that involves the replacement of an atom by another.
• Elimination reaction: A reaction in which a small molecule is removed from an organic molecule, such as H2O or HCL
• Hydrolysis: The breakdown of a compound using water, which can be sped up by reacting with an acid or alkali.
• Condensation: A reaction in which two organic molecules join together and release a small molecule, H2O or HCL.
• Homolytic fission: When the covalent bond in a molecule breaks evenly and each atom takes one of the shared electron.
• Heterolytic fission: When a covalent bond breaks unequally and the more electronegative atom takes both of the shared electrons.
• Free radical substitution: The reaction in which a halogen replaces a hydrogen atom in an alkane.
• Nucleophile: A species that acts as a donor of a pair of electrons.
• Electrophile: A species that acts as an acceptor of a pair of electrons.
• Electrophilic addition: A reaction in which a compound with a double/triple bond, where the pi bond breaks to form two new sigma bonds.
• Nucleophilic substitution: When a nucleophile reacts with a compound and displaces another nucleophile.
• Nucleophilic addition: A reaction in which a nucleophile attacks a carbon-carbon double bond in a carbonyl group.