Case study: Antarctica

• Global commons aren’t owned by any one country or organisation, they belong to everybody, and should be available for everyone’s use and benefit.
• The global commons are governed by different pieces of international law.
• Environmental NGOs aim to protect the commons from exploitation, as they offer unique habitats for wildlife and have a positive impact on environmental systems.
• The commons are also valuable for scientific investigation.
• International Relations: The governance of Antarctica involves complex international agreements and diplomatic relations, which can influence broader global governance systems that can impact England's foreign policy and international relationships.
• Antarctica as a global common: Antarctica's unique geographical location and its abundance of natural resources make it a potential global common.
• Resource Management: Management of Antarctica's resources, such as fisheries or minerals, can have indirect economic effects on England and other countries, especially if international regulations impact global markets.
• Decisions related to the governance of Antarctica can have far-reaching implications for individuals living in England, ranging from environmental and scientific considerations to economic and geopolitical impacts.
• Pressures placed on the global commons include polluted atmosphere, climate change, deteriorating ocean health, freshwater stress, retreating ice caps, collapsing glaciers, and land use change.
• The tragedy of the commons refers to a situation in which individuals or countries with access to a public resource (also called a common) act in their own interest and, in doing so, ultimately deplete the resource.
• Restrictions on how much a country can take from each resource with priority going to countries that need it is a way to prevent exploitations.
• The high seas cover 2/3 of the Earth’s surface and are not under the jurisdiction of any single country.
• The high seas are governed by different pieces of international law.
• Pressures on the high seas include climate change, marine pollution, overfishing, destruction of marine and coastal habitats, invasive species, oil and gas extraction, and illegal use of the seas.
• The high seas are important for scientific research and offer unique habitats for wildlife.
• Antarctica covers an area about 14 million km², contains 90% of all the ice on Earth, and is home to very few plants and animals.
• The marine ecosystem in Antarctica is fragile and if the population of one species decreases, it affects other species.
• The IWC has been criticised for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary.
• Antarctica serves as a crucial location for scientific research that contributes to our understanding of climate change, which in turn can inform policies and actions taken in England to address environmental challenges.
• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is part of the UN that governs the world’s environment and reports activity in Antarctica to the UN.
• Some countries have left the agreement, including Japan, to resume commercial whaling, leaving the international law.
• CAMLR (Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) aims to stop illegal fishing and conserve the ecosystem there.
• All areas of Antarctica, including all stations, installations and equipment within those areas are open to inspection.
• The IWC set up a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica in order to protect whales.
• Parties to the Antarctic Treaty are obliged to inform each other of their activities in Antarctica and facilitate inspections by other parties of their facilities.
• The secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty is a group based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, responsible for coordinating annual meetings (ATCM) about Antarctica, sharing information between everyone involved about Antarctica.
• Some countries want a better monitoring system, including placing independent observers on whaling boats and registering all whaling boats with the IWC.
• The International Whaling Commission (IWC) banned all commercial whaling, which is believed to have helped whale populations to increase.
• ASOC (NGO) wants to protect the environment and monitors environmental changes, checks whether countries are sticking to the rules, and monitors the effects that climate change is having on Antarctica.
• The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is responsible for regulating whaling and ensuring that the whale population is at a sustainable level.
• CAMLR's effectiveness is limited by individual countries protecting their own interests.
• An NGO, or Non-Governmental Organization, is a non-profit group that operates independently of government control and is typically focused on addressing social, environmental, or humanitarian issues.
• The Antarctic Treaty (1959) is an agreement about how to sustainably manage Antarctica’s ecosystems.
• Global governance of Antarctica can affect individuals living in England in several ways: Environmental Impact: Decisions made about the management and conservation of Antarctica can have a direct impact on global climate patterns, including those that affect England.
• Over-fishing poses a significant threat to Antarctic species, such as the Patagonian toothfish and Antarctic krill, with over 200,000 tonnes of krill harvested in 2013.
• A protocol of environmental protection was put in place in 1991 to ensure mining did not take place in Antarctica.
• The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 and enforced from 1961, making Antarctica a zone of peace.
• Tourism in Antarctica contributes to water and air pollution through increased shipping
• The presence of tourists can disturb bird breeding colonies and harm wildlife by trampling fragile habitats, exacerbated by slow decomposition rates in cold environments.
• Despite a current ban on mining in Antarctica, the challenging logistics of transporting machinery to Antarctica and the harsh landscape deter mining activities.