monera

• Monera (prokaryotae) is the kingdom to which bacteria belong.
• Bacteria can be classified into groups based on shape: Rods.
• All bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall.
• Others may have a dry capsule.
• There are no membrane-bound organelles within the cell.
• Cytoplasm and ribosomes are present.
• Many bacteria also contain other circular pieces of DNA (plasmids).
• Many bacteria produce spores that allow them to survive in unfavourable conditions.
• Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.
• Batch Culture is when a fixed amount of nutrients and culture are added to a bioreactor and the bioreactor is emptied at the end of production.
• During the Decline phase, numbers start to decrease and the death rate is greater than the reproductive rate.
• During the Stationary phase, there is no increase or decrease in numbers and growth slows down due to lack of food, space, moisture, or oxygen.
• Bacteria go through five stages of growth: Lag phase, Log phase (exponential), Stationary phase, Death or decline phase, and Survival phase.
• Continuous flow method involves maintaining the microbes in the log phase of growth by the addition of fresh medium.
• During the Log phase, there is a huge increase in numbers, exponential growth, and numbers are doubling by binary fission in every new generation.
• In the Death or Survival phase, not all bacteria die and some may survive as spores.
• The chromosome is replicated during bacterial reproduction.
• The two chromosomes are pulled apart during bacterial reproduction.
• The cell is divided down the middle and forms two equal-sized cells during bacterial reproduction.
• Bacteria can divide every 20 minutes if conditions are favourable.
• Beneficial bacteria are important as decomposers.
• Bacteria can produce antibiotics. e.g streptomyces
• Pathogens are micro-organisms that cause disease.
• Bacteria can cause food spoilage and disease, such as typhoid.
• Antibiotics have no effect against viruses or fungi.
• Beneficial bacteria can produce cheese and yoghurt. e.g lactobacillus
• If antibiotic-resistant bacteria are present, they will not be killed and will quickly colonise the patient.
• The gene conferring antibiotic resistance is usually carried on the plasmids in the bacteria.
• Antibiotics kill or prevent the growth of bacteria without affecting the human.
• Many factors affect the growth of bacteria, including oxygen, temperature, pH, and external solute concentrations.
• pH affects the growth of bacteria, with most living in the pH range of 6–8.
• Oxygen is a factor that affects the growth of bacteria, with most bacteria being aerobic and some being anaerobic.
• Pressure is a factor that affects the growth of bacteria.
• Bacterial nutrition includes both autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria.
• Temperature affects the growth of bacteria, with most growing in the temperature range of 10–30°C.
• Symbiotic organisms include both organisms that benefit and organisms that are benefitted.

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• External solute concentrations are factors that affect bacterial growth.
• Transpiration is a process that affects the growth of bacteria.
• heterotrophs don't make their own food
• autotrophs make their own food