exam 1-4

• Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur are the CHONPS elements.
• Carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides, mainly sugars and starches, and function as an energy source and storage.
• Lipids are insoluble in water, made up of glycerol with three fatty acids attached, and function as a long term energy reserve and structural components.
• Proteins are made up of amino acid monomers, that from polypeptide chains, with α-amino acids being the most common, and function as altered by the conversion of certain amino acid residues.
• Organic molecules dissolve due to hydrogen bond in H2O, which has a large dielectric constant, making it a universal solvent.
• Water is constantly moving and dynamic, giving structural stability to macromolecules while allowing enough flexibility for cellular functions to proceed.
• Hydrophilic molecules affect the hydration of ions in all ionic interaction in aqueous solution.
• As ions hydrate, they separate from each other and dissolve.
• Many layers bridge the space between macromolecules, creating structured water.
• The structure of water, H2O, is not freely flowing and is noncovalently associated with molecules and membranes, densely packing it.
• Nucleic Acids consist of both coding (genes) and noncoding sequences, form a right-handed double helix, and store genetic information.
• DNA consists of both coding (genes) and noncoding sequences, forms a right-handed double helix, and store genetic information.
• RNA contains sugar ribose, is single-stranded, folds into a complex 3-d structure, and converts genetic information contained in DNA to build proteins.
• Gene expression controls when information encoded in a gene will be accessed, starting with transcription, where a DNA segment is used to synthesize a gene product.
• Translation, the second step in getting from a gene to a protein, takes place in the cytoplasm.
• Metabolism consists of five main functions: Homeostasis, Energy production, Interconversion of intermediates, Synthesis and transport, and Information storage, retrieval, maintenance and replication.
• Metabolic pathways can be anabolic (biosynthetic, requires energy input) and catabolic (degrading, releases energy).
• Energy transfer pathways capture energy and transform it into forms usable by cells.
• Signal transduction allows cells to receive and respond to signals.
• Biochemical reactions include nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction, and more.
• Receptors are binding sites for signal molecules to trigger a cellular response.
• Peripheral proteins are attached to the membrane via covalent bonds or noncovalent interaction.
• The proteome is the characteristic set of all cell’s proteins.
• Robustness is the ability of a system to remain stable despite changes.
• Transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes is a crucial process in cellular function.
• Hydrophobic molecules are molecules with hydrocarbons with very little electronegative atoms, limiting surface area so they form clusters and do not interact with water well.
• Waste removal is a necessary process in cellular function.
• Misfolded proteins or aggregates can be devastating to cells and the overall organism.
• Channel (carrier) proteins transport ions and molecules across the membrane.
• The cell wall of prokaryotic cells is composed of peptidoglycan, a covalent complex of short peptide chains linking long carbohydrate chains.
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus, are small and simple, and have no membrane-bound organelles.
• Integral proteins are embedded in the membrane and diffuse laterally.
• Folding of proteins requires molecular chaperones, which are molecules that prevent inappropriate interactions in the folding process.
• Synthesis and degradation of biomolecules require ATP and can be used as structure, information, or catalyzers (enzymes).
• Complexity is present to ensure failure prevention; the result of degeneracy or the capacity of structurally different parts of a system to perform the same function.
• Proteins and structures are predisposed to intricately shaped surfaces with structures, charge distributions, and hydrophobic regions that allow for numerous weak, noncovalent interactions.
• Hydrophilic molecules are molecules with positive or negative charges.
• Signal transduction processes involve reception, transduction, response, and termination.
• Large number of electronegative oxygen or nitrogen atoms (NaCl) interact easily with water.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, are larger and complex, and have membrane-bound organelles.