biooo

• The structure of DNA was first determined in 1950s by Francis Crick and James Watson based on the X-ray crystallographic data of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
• X-ray crystallography allows the investigation of molecular structure using the pattern formed by X-rays though a crystalline material
• DNA is one type of nucleic acid made up of nucleotides and is composed of deoxyribose (5-carbon sugar), a phosphate group and nitrogenous bases.
• There are two types of nitrogenous bases in DNA with two forms each. Purines – double-ringed nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines – single-ringed nitrogenous bases
• Alfred sturvant - gene mapping

  Thomas Hunt Morgan - genetic traits are passed on fruit flies

  Fred Griffith - Transforming principle
• RNA is the second type of nucleic acid. RNA strand is composed of nitrogenous bases, ribose sugar, and a phosphate group.
• Types of RNA - messenger RNA (mRNA) - transfer RNA (tRNA) - ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• The DNA replicates using semi-conservative method.
• The Central dogma pertains to the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) • A technique that is used to increase the number of copies of the region of interest in a DNA molecule and to run the samples in gel electrophoresis.
• PCR is useful for: 1) forensic investigation to identify a DNA sample in a crime scene; 2) paternity analysis; and 3) the identification of taxonomic history by comparing samples of ancient DNA with modern organisms.
• RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction)
• gel electrophoresis- device used to separate DNA to tiny pieces
• Reverse transcriptase - also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into DNA
• Reverse Transcription- encoding of the genome of RNA into the molecules of DNA
• Restriction enzyme -Has the ability to cut DNA
• Antigen- detects if a person has a virus also in proteins
• Agarose - gel used in Electrophoresis - seaweed, gel, polysaccharide
• PCR PROCESS

  1. Denaturing - strands separate (95° )addition of heat 


  2. Annealing - primase bind template (55° )

  3. Extension - synthesize new strand(72° ) making new copies of DNA
• Genome - The entire collection of all cell in a organism
• Genome Mapping • Another technique used in molecular biology wherein similar information of the genetic makeup such as the outline for the location of genes within a genome, and the distance between genes and genetic markers are identified using this technique.
• At present, some genetic diseases are treated by genome mapping. - The location of genes of an organismin in a specific region - distance of genes in the percentage of crossing over Closer - low percentage of crossing over Far - high percentage of crossing over
• Recombinant DNA Technology • A popular genetic engineering process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments
• DNA that contains genes for a particular protein is used and then recombined with the circular bacterial DNA (plasmid) and then inserted into a bacterial cell through a process called transformation.
• The application of whole genome sequencing (WGS) has extended to biofuel development, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and environmental management. Recently, WGS is used to save lives. This can be done by developing personalized medicine, by predicting disease risks of a person, and by looking at how medicine interacts prior to clinical trials. WGS can also be used in genealogical assessment using mitochondria, application in forensic science and improvements in agriculture
• • The concept of life itself is not a simple concept to explain. Often because of its ambiguity in definition, this word is always a subject of debates that wrestle between what is moral and what is lawful.
• Cellular complexity - All living things are composed of either one or more cells that are highly complex yet organized and enclosed within membranes.
• Growth and development - Living things use energy to grow by metabolizing compounds through cellular respiration or photosynthesis
• Organisms also undergo different life stages, which follow a systematic process from birth to maturity.
• Life Stages: 1. Prenatal development 2. Infancy 3. Toddlerhood 4. Early childhood 5. Middle 6. Adolescence 7. Early Adulthood 8. Middle Adulthood 9. Late Adulthood/ Old Ages 10. Death & Dying
• Reproduction - Continuity of life would definitely be impossible without reproduction
• Organisms possess a complicated yet intricate genetic system based on biochemical processes of the DNA.
• Irritability (response to stimuli) - All organisms are very sensitive to different stimuli, may it be environmental or physiological.
• Irritability - This may refer to any form of response or movement to stimuli in its own volition
• Homeostasis - Living things maintain relatively constant internal conditions, which are different from their environment.
• Panspermia - This hypothesis proposes that microscopic life forms that survived the effects of space became trapped in debris that were expelled into space after a strong collision between the planets that was responsible in harboring life forms. Like for instance, meteors or cosmic dust that hit Earth transported significant amount of such complicated organic molecules, which started the evolution of life
• Abiogenesis - This hypothesized that life evolved from inanimate objects.
• Abiogenesis

  Naturalist proponents of this theory believed that there are four important key events to the origin of life:

  1. An atmosphere full of reduced gas molecules and a source of energy needed to convert these molecules into important biological precursors required for life
  2. An ocean that is teeming with biological molecules
  3. A process to produce from this ocean of molecules the kinds of information-rich polymers essential for a living cell
  4. A belief that if step 3 can be executed, it would result almost inevitably to the creation of a living cell
• Spontaneous Generation - The obsolete idea of spontaneous generation is described as the formation of living organism without arising from a similar organism. Characteristically, the idea was that certain organism like fleas, for example, could come from a nonliving thing or the maggots could arise from dead meat. This 5 belief was quite popular during 17th and 18th centuries.
• scientific name of fruit fly - Drosophila melanogaster