O- Situational Explanations

• Agentic State

  Milgram's initial interest in obedience was from Eichmann who oversaw Nazi death camps, and his defence for his actions was that he was obeying orders. Leading Milgram to propose that obedience to destructive authority occurs when a person doesn't take responsibility- instead they believe they are acting for someone else. Though this 'agent' isn't an unfeeling puppet- they experience high anxiety (moral strain) when they realise what they are doing is wrong, but feel powerless to disobey.
• Autonomous State

  The opposite of being in an agentic state; 'autonomony' means to be free or independent. So when a person is in this state, they can behave according to their own principles, and feel responsible for their own actions.
• Agentic Shift

  The shift from autonomous to agentic state. Milgram suggested that it occurs when a person perceives someone else as an authority figure. They have greater power as they have a higher position in a social hierarchy. In most social groups when one person is in charge, others identify their legitimate authority, and shift to agency.
• Binding Factors

  Milgram observed that many of his p's said they wanted to stop but felt powerless, he wondered why they remained in an agentic state. This is due to binding factors- aspects of the situation which allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effects of their behaviour. This reduces their 'moral strain'. Suggesting p's did this by shifting responsibility to the victim or denying the damage they were doing to victims.
• AO3: Agentic State; Research Support

  Milgram's own studies support the role of the agentic state in obedience. Most of p's resisted giving the shocks at some point, and often asked questions about the procedure. One of these was who is responsible if the Learner is harmed- the Experimenter claimed that they take responsibility. After this, p's often went through the procedure quickly without any further objections- showing that when they perceived they were no longer responsible for their own behaviour, they acted more easily as the Experimenter's agent.
• AO3: Agentic State; Limited Explanation

  It doesn't explain many research findings about obedience. For example, in Rank and Jacobson's study 16 out of 18 hospital nurses disobeyed orders from a doctor (an authority figure) to administer an excessive drug dose to a patient. Almost all nurses remained autonomous, as did many of Milgram's p's- therefore the agentic state can only account for some situations of obedience.
• AO3: Agentic State; Obedience Alibi Revisited

  Mandel describes one incident in WWII involving German Reserve Police Battalion 101. These men shot many civilians in a small town in Poland, despite not having orders to do so- therefore, they behaved autonomously.
• Legitimacy of Authority

  Most societies are structured in a hierarchical form, meaning certain positions hold authority over us. The authority they possess is legitimate, society have agreed they can exercise social power over us- allowing society to function smoothly.

  A consequence of this is some people are granted the power to punish others (police and courts)- so we are willing to give up our independence and hand control of our behaviour onto those we trust will exercise their authority properly. Learning this acceptance since childhood.
• Destructive Authority

  Problems arise when legitimate authority becomes destructive. History has shown that powerful leaders (like Hitler and Stalin) can use their legitimate power for destructive purposes- ordering people to behave in ways that are cruel and dangerous. Destructive authority was evident in Milgram's study when the Experimenter used prods to order p's to behave in ways which went against their consciences.
• AO3: Legitimacy of Authority; Explains Cultural Differences

  Many studies show that countries differ in the degree to which people are obedient to authority. For example Kilham and Mann found that only 16% of Australian women went up to 450V in Milgram-style study. However, Mantell found that 85% of German p's continued. This shows that in some cultures, authority is more likely to be accepted as legitimate, hence demanding obedience from p's. This is reflected in the different ways societies are structured and how children are raised to perceive authority.
• AO3: Legitimacy of Authority; Cannot Explain All (Dis)Obedience

  The nurses in Rank and Jacobson's study still were disobedient even working in an environment which has a rigid hierarchical structure. Also a significant majority of Milgram's p's disobeyed despite recognising the Experimenter's scientific authority. Suggesting some people may be more or less disobedient than others. Innate tendencies to obey or disobey may then have greater influence than LoA.
• AO3: Legitimacy of Authority; Real-World Crimes of Obedience

  Kelman and Hamilton argue that real-world crimes of obedience, like the My Lai massacre, can be understood in terms of the power hierarchy of US Army. Commanding Officers operate within a clearer legitimate hierarchy than doctors, and have a greater power to punish.