Psych exam 1

• The resting potential refers to the electrical charge across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not actively transmitting a signal. It provides a state of readiness for the neuron, allowing it to quickly respond and transmit signals when needed.
• The Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed. They allow for the jumping of signals from one node to another, enabling faster transmission of signals through saltatory conduction.
• Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters, which are released into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters play a crucial role in transmitting signals between neurons.
• After the peak of an action potential, repolarization occurs as the potassium gates open and positively charged potassium ions (K+) leave the cell. This movement of positive ions out of the cell restores the internal charge to its resting potential.
• The myelin sheath acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which signals travel along the axon. It allows for faster and more efficient transmission compared to unmyelinated axons.
• The threshold of excitation is the level of depolarization that a neuron must reach for an action potential to be triggered. If the charge reaches this threshold, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins.
• Psychotropic drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system, aiming to bring the neurotransmitters back into balance.
• Glia generally play supporting roles to neurons, both physically and metabolically.
• Neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic cleft and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. The shape of the receptor matches the specific neurotransmitter, allowing for binding and communication between neurons.
• The sodium-potassium pump helps maintain the concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions across the neuronal membrane, with sodium being more concentrated outside the cell and potassium being more concentrated inside the cell. This contributes to the negative charge inside the cell during the resting state.
• Disruptions in the myelin sheath can lead to neurological disorders such as PKU and multiple sclerosis (MS). These disruptions interfere with the transmission of signals and can result in various symptoms and impairments.
• Psychologists study the nervous system to understand the biological basis of human psychology and how the body's cells and organs function.
• Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it. This process helps clear the synapse, providing an 'on' and 'off' state between signals and regulating the production of neurotransmitters.
• The myelin sheath provides insulation to the axon, increasing the speed at which signals travel. Its loss can be detrimental to normal neuronal function
• During synaptic communication, neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, initiating the process in the new neuron if the signal is strong enough.
• The semipermeable membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.
• The soma, or cell body, contains the nucleus of the neuron and is responsible for integrating signals received from dendrites.
• Dendrites serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons, as they contain receptors for neurotransmitters released by nearby neurons.
• The membrane potential, which is the difference in charge across the neuronal membrane, provides energy for the signal. It allows ions to rush across the membrane when the neuron becomes active.
• Glial cells play a supportive role to neurons by providing scaffolding, insulation, nutrient transport, waste product removal, and mediating immune responses.
• After the peak of an action potential, repolarization occurs as the potassium gates open and positively charged potassium ions (K+) leave the cell. At first, the cell hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting potential.
• The Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin sheath along the length of the axon. They play a crucial role in speeding up the transmission of signals by allowing the signal to jump from one node to another, known as saltatory conduction.
• Psychotropic drugs are prescribed to bring neurotransmitters back into balance, as imbalances in neurotransmitter systems are often associated with psychological disorders.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft. They bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, allowing communication to occur between neurons.
• Neuronal communication occurs through specialized structures in neurons, such as the soma, dendrites, axons, terminal buttons, and synaptic vesicles.
• The myelin sheath acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which signals travel along the axon.
• The sodium-potassium pump helps maintain the concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions across the neuronal membrane, with sodium being more concentrated outside the cell and potassium being more concentrated inside the cell.
• The two cell types that make up the nervous system are glial cells (glia) and neurons.
• Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan.
• Developmental psychologists are interested in processes related to physical maturation. However, their focus is not limited to the physical changes associated with aging, as they also focus on changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes
• Personality psychology focuses on

  ·         construction of a coherent picture of the individual and their major psychological processes.

  ·         investigation of individual psychological differences.

  ·         investigation of human nature and psychological similarities between individuals.
• Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.
• Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
• Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior.
• evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior. Just as genetic traits have evolved and adapted over time, psychological traits can also evolve and be determined through natural selection.
• The five main psychological pillars, or domains, as we will refer to them, are:

  1.    Domain 1: Biological (includes neuroscience, consciousness, and sensation)

  2.    Domain 2: Cognitive (includes the study of perception, cognition, memory, and intelligence)

  3.    Domain 3: Development (includes learning and conditioning, lifespan development, and language)

  4.    Domain 4: Social and Personality (includes the study of personality, emotion, motivation, gender, and culture)

  5.    Domain 5: Mental and Physical Health (includes abnormal psychology, therapy, and health psychology)
• Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus.
• Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences.
• Skinner studied modifying behavior through reinforcement
• The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment.