fallacies

• types of fallacies: fallacies of relevance, fallacies of defective induction, fallacies of presumption, fallacies of ambiguity
• fallacies of relevance: appeal to populace, appeal to pity, red herring, the strawman, argument against the person, appeal to force, missing the point, middle ground fallacy
• •The Appeal to Populace (Argumentum ad Populum)

  The attempt to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing the feelings of the multitude.
• The Appeal to Pity (ad Miserocardiam) • A fallacy in which the argument relies on generosity, altruism, or mercy rather than reason
• The Red Herring • A fallacy in which attention is deliberately deflected away from the issue under discussion
• The Strawman • A fallacy in which an opponent’s position is depicted as being more extreme or unreasonable than is justified by what was actually asserted
• The strawman - If one argues some view by presenting an opponent’s position as one that is easily torn apart
• Argument Against the Person (ad hominem) • A fallacy in which the argument relies upon an attack against the person taking a position
• The Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum) • A fallacy in which the argument relies upon an open or veiled threat of force
• Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi) • A fallacy in which the premise support a different conclusion from the one that is proposed
• Middle Ground Fallacy • A fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that a compromise between two extremes must be correct or true, purely because it's a middle point
• Middle Ground Fallacy - It asserts that the truth must always lie somewhere in the middle of two opposing positions without considering the validity or logic behind each position.
• fallacies of defective induction: argument from ignorance, appeal to authority, false cause, hasty generalization
• The Argument from Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam) • A fallacy in which a proposition is held to be true just because it has not been proven false, or false because it has not been proven true. • Also known as appeal to a lack of evidence or burden of proof fallacy
• The Appeal to Authority (Ad Verecundiam) • A fallacy in which a conclusion is accepted as true when someone argues that a proposition is true because an authority has said that it is true.

  ⚬ The Appeal to False/Improper/Inappropriate Authority - an expert who is not a real expert

  The Appeal to Anonymous Authority - unnamed or unidentified ⚬ The Appeal to Biased Authority - expert
• False Cause • A fallacy in which something that is not really the cause of something else is treated as its cause
• under false cause: single cause, reverse causation, after this, therefore because of this, with this, therefore because of this
• Hasty Generalization • A fallacy in which -one moves carelessly from a single case to a large-scale generalization about or all more cases
• fallacies of presumption: loaded/complex question fallacy, begging the question fallacy, slippery slope fallacy
• The Loaded/Complex Question Fallacy (Plurium Interrogationum) • A fallacy in which a question is asked in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some conclusion buried in that question
• Begging the Question Fallacy • An informal fallacy in which the conclusion of an argument is stated or assumed in the any oneofthepremise
• Slippery Slope Fallacy • An informal fallacy in which an argument that claims an initial event or action will trigger a series of other events and lead to an extreme or undesirable outcome.
• under slippery slope: causal, precedential, conceptual
• Causal - each event being the cause of the next in the sequence
• Precedential - to treat a minor case today is to treat a major case in the future
• Conceptual - no distinction between adjacent stages nor any stages at all.
• fallacies of ambiguity: equivocation, amphiboly, accent, composition, division
• Equivocation • trades upon the use of an ambiguous word or phrase in one of its meanings in one of the propositions of an argument but also in another of its meanings in a second proposition
• equivocation It occurs when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument and then another meaning in another portion of the argument.
• Amphiboly • involves grammatical ambiguity. • occurs when the grammar of a statement, be it written or spoken, leaves the statement open to multiple interpretations
• Accent • occurs when an argument contains a premise that relies on one possible emphasis of certain words, but the conclusion relies on a different emphasis that gives those same words a different meaning
• Composition • an informal fallacy that arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole.
• Division • occurs when one reasons that something that is true for a whole must also be true of all or some of its parts