BIO 1A03

• Starch is digested by amylase, which is excreted from the salivary glands and the pancreas.
• Kaiso regulates the expression of genes which control cell division and cell to cell fusion.
• Amylase takes a polysaccharide such as starch and catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch.
• Hydrolysis is the addition of water to break off a bond to create two hydroxyl groups from an ether, called a glycosidic linkage in polysaccharides.
• Some cultures eat more starch than others based on what is provided by their environment.
• Humans began as hunter gatherers and so starch was not very prevalent.
• The cultures which eat more starch, have to have more amylase available.
• Different selective pressures of varying starch consumption has acted on the AMY 1 gene.
• Individuals who’s ancestors consumed high starch diets have higher amylase gene copy numbers, and so higher protein levels.
• More amy1 copies means more amylase means better at starch metabolization, better blood sugar regulation, an d may mean a more diverse micro gut biome.
• Other organisms with higher amylase levels include mice, pigs, and domesticated dogs.
• Embryonic cell is the union of egg and sperm, same genetic heritage for rest of cells, but go onto cell specialization.
• Eukaryotes include plants, animals, funghi, and protists.
• The human microbiome contains about 10 times more prokaryotes than eukaryotes.
• Eukaryotes contain a nucleus and many membrane bound organelles.
• A prokaryotic cell is usually unicellular, lacks a nucleus, and has few to no organelles.
• Streptococcus salivaris is a regular inhibitant of the upper resp tract and oral cavity.
• Staphylococcus haemolyticus resides on our skin but can be pathogenic inside the body.
• Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is one that lives in the interstine.
• Phospholipids are the building blocks of membranes.
• Nitrogenous bases include Guanine with Cytosine, and Adenine with Thymine.
• Condensation is used to polymerize amino acids to release water.
• Molecular chaperones aid in folding polypeptides, chaperonins close the unfolded polypeptide inside and allow for folding to occur without interference.
• Protein structures include primary (amino acid sequence information), secondary (an alpha helix containing hydrogen bonds between terminal oxygens and hydrogens), secondary structures can also form beta pleated sheets in which the r groups extend above and below the sheet, tertiary structure (the three dimensional shape that determines function), and quaternary structure (where multiple tertiary structures come together to perform a function as one).
• Nucleotides run antiparallel to each other and the helix twists every 10 bases.
• Each amino acid has an amine group, hydrogen, carboxyl, and carbon in the middle, and then vary by the R group which can change the amino acid properties and therefore protein expression.
• Bound ribosomes can make membrane proteins like channels or organelles.
• Hydrophobic amino acids are anything that looks like a hydrocarbon attached to it, or a benzene ring
• All proteins require proper folding to function as it determines their 3D shape which is critical for functioning.
• Nucleotides are subunits of DNA, containing a nitrogenous base at C1, a phosphate at C5 and attached to other nucleotides on C3 of deoxyribose sugar.
• Streptococcus mouse test involves injecting a virulent strain of streptococcus into some mice, and a non-virulent strain to others, and observing which ones die.
• Basic protein structure includes a hydrophobic interior and hydrophilic exterior to be soluble in cytosol.
• Glycosylation is a process where proteins are modified by the addition of one or more carbohydrate chains.
• Prokaryotic chromosomes are small and circular, supercoiled DNA surrounding protein.
• Bacterial porin is a protein found in prokaryotic cells that forms beta pleated sheets with a hydrophobic exterior and hydrophilic interior.
• An ether bond broken by water creates two hydroxyl groups.
• The poly A tail protects transcript from degradation.
• Ribosomes can be free ribosomes (unattached) or bound ribosomes (attached to RER).
• Nirenberg and Matthaei took a cell free system and made sure it contained all the required ingredients for translation with a repeated uracil pattern which gave them repeated phe.
• Prokaryotic transcription and translation are coupled at the same time where translation can occur before transcription has even ended as the mRNA does not have to travel anywhere to be around ribosomes.