Memory

• Coding


  The way in which information is stored into memory e.g. Acoustically, visually, semantically. It is changing information into a form which can then be stored.
• Capacity


  A measure of how much can be held in memory, in terms of bits or chunks of information.
• Duration


  A measure. of how long a memory lasts in a store, before it is no longer available for recall.
• Short Term Memory

  Coding: mostly semantic (Baddely 1966)

  Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items (Miller)

  Duration: 18-30 seconds without rehearsal (Peterson and Peterson)
• Long Term Memory 


  Coding: mostly semantic (Baddely 1966)

  Capacity: unlimited

  Duration: a lifetime with cues (Bahrick 1975)
• Multi Store Model Of Memory (MSM)


  You only need a detailed and annotated diagram:

  
• Clive Wearing Case Study

  Virtually no LTM when the herpes virus damaged parts of his temporal lobes (including the hippocampi). His STM still worked fine.

  It supports the existence of stores as he had an LTM and STM but could not make new memories which indicates damage to his ability to transfer to the LTM, this shows STM and LTM may be in different areas of the brain.
• K.F’s Case Study

  His memory was impaired as a result of a motorbike accident where he suffered significant brain energy.

  It supports the idea of separate unitary stores in the MSM as K.F’s STM had a reduced capacity of just 1-2 items while his LTM was fine.
• Limitations Of the MSM

  • Case studies cannot be generalise to the general population
  • Machine reductionism as it oversimplifies memory and avoids looking at more complex explanations involving human emotions
• Episodic Memory


  Our ability to recall events from our lives. These are personal memories (WWWH). These memories can be retrieved consciously and acknowledged.
• Semantic Memory


  Our knowledge of the world. Including facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. These memories can be retrieved consciously and acknowledged.
• Procedural Memory


  Our knowledge of how to do things. Our learned practical skills (muscle memory). These memories cannot be retrieved consciously, they are done without acknowledgement.
• Central Executive


  Allocates resources dependent on cognitive demands. It controls the other component systems. It acts as a filter and determines what information will/will not be attended to.
• Phonological Loop


  Temporary acoustic storage system for auditory and verbal information that we use to repeat information or store words before we speak. It contains two sub-systems.
• Phonological Store


  Represents auditory information in terms of pitch and loudness (inner ear).
• Articulatory Process


  Holds words for sub-vocal repetition to prevent decay (inner voice).
• Visuo Spatial Sketchpad


  Rehearses visual and/or spatial information (inner eye)

  Logie (1995) sub-divided this store into a visual cache (stores visual information) and inner scribe(stores information about spatial relationships). It has a limited capacity but the limits of the two systems are independent.
• Episodic Buffer


  Sends information to the LTM and binds together information from different sources into chunks or ‘episodes’. It also recalls material from the LTM and integrates it into the STM when working memory requires it.
• AO3 For Working Memory Model

  Support: Hitch and Baddeley’s (1975) Dual Task Experiments

  Support/Limitation: Paulescu (1993) Physiological Evidence From PET Brain Scans

  Limitation: Machine Reductionism
• Hitch And Baddeley (1975) Dual Task Experiment


  Participants showed greater difficulty doing two visual tasks (tracking a light and describing the letter F) than doing both a visual and verbal (phonological) task at the same time. This increased difficulty is because both visual tasks compete for the same slave system, whereas, when doing a verbal and visual task simultaneously, there is no competition.

  This means there must be a separate slave system (the visuo-spatial sketchpad) that processes the visual input, and can only focus on one item at any one time.
• Paulescu (1993) Physiological Evidence From PET Brain Scans


  PET scans have shown that different areas of the brain are used when undertaking verbal and visual tasks. The scans are able to distinguish which areas of the brain are used from the visuo-spatial sketchpad and which for the phonological loop.

  However, challenging the model, the scans do not find any area of the brain common to these tasks- showing no evidence of the Central Executive or Episodic Buffer.
• Interference (Explanation For Forgetting)


  This form of forgetting occurs when one memory disrupts our ability to recall another. This will only occur when the two memories are similar. There are two types.
• Retroactive Interference

  Occurs when newly acquired information inhibits our ability to recall previously acquired similar information.
• Proactive Interference


  The tendency for previously acquired material to hinder recall of subsequent/current similar information.
• Retrieval Failure (Explanation For Forgetting)

  Form of forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access a memory. The memory is available, but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
• Context Dependent Forgetting

  Occurs due to a lack of the correct environmental (or external) cues.

  E.G. Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) Under Water Divers Experiment
• State Dependent Forgetting

  Occurs due to the lack of the correct personal (or internal) cues.

  E.G. Goodwin’s (1969) Alcohol Recall Experiment
• Schema

  Frameworks of our ready-made expectations that help us understand our world (stereotypes). They are created from the concepts, events and knowledge which already exist in our mind.
• Schemas are made up of:

  -Concepts

  -Events

  -Knowledge that already exists in our mind
• Why are schemas needed:

  -Help us interpret the world

  -Store new knowledge

  -‘Fill in gaps’ in new information
• Why schemas are a problem:

  They can distort understanding and recall. when information doesn’t readily fit into our existing schema, we adapt it, so that it does.
• Leading Questions:


  Questions that make it likely that a participant‘s schema will influence them to give a desired answer.
• Misleading Information

  Incorrect information given to the eyewitness that may alter a memory after the event. Information that suggests a desired response.
• Post-Event Discussion

  A misleading conversation after an incident has occurred that may alter a witness’ memory. Information added to a memory after the event has occurred.
• Loftus & Palmer’s (1974) Leading Questions Bumped/Smashed Experiment:

  -45 Student participants placed in groups and shown short films involving car accidents.

  -Given questionnaires to fill in where only one question was critical: estimation of the speed of the car.

  -The five conditions were wether the participants were asked how fast the cars were going when they hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted.
• Findings Of Loftus & Palmer’s (1974) Study

  Average estimates of speed:

  ’Smashed’- 40.8 mph

  ’Collided’- 39.3 mph

  ’Bumped’- 38.1 mph

  ’Hit’- 34.0 mph

  ’Contacted’- 31.8 mph