Gender Differences in Achievement

• The Impact of Feminism

  A social movement striving for equal rights for women. Since 60s, feminist movement has challenged traditional stereotypes of a women's role as only being a wife or housemaker. Changes have encouraged girls, giving them motivation and ambition regarding careers- improving their educational achievement.
• The Impact of Femininsm

  McRobbie studied girls' magazines in the 70s, finding they emphasised the importance of being married. Nowadays, they contained images of assertive, independent women; bettering girls' self-image and ambitions.
• Changes in the Family

  Major changes since the 70s include: increased divorce rates, increase in cohabitation, increase in lone-parent families (matrifocal). These changes have meant that women will need to take on the breadwinner role, creating new adult role models for girls- the financially independent women. To achieve this, women need well paid jobs and good qualifications. Increased divorce rates then encourage girls to be independent to ensure a sustained living.
• Changes in Women's Employment

  1970 Equal Pay Act- made it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value. Since 1975, the pay gap has halved from 30% to 15%. The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013. These changes have encouraged girls to see their future in terms of paid work- rather than domestic tasks. Providing girls with an incentive to gain qualifications.
• Girls' Changing Ambitions

  Sharpe interviewed girls in the 70s and 90s, these show a major shift in they ways girls see their future. In 70s, girls had low aspirations; seeing educational success as unfeminine, seeing ambition as unattractive. Their priorities were love and marriage. By the 90s, girls ambitions had changed- prioritising careers and being financially independent was their chosen life plan.
• Girls' Changing Ambitions

  Girls in Fuller's study knew that to achieve independence and self-sufficiency they had to obtain a good education. They then saw educational success as a central element to their identity- seeing themselves as creating their own future. Believing in meritocracy and aiming for a professional career which could allow them to support themselves.
• Class, Gender, and Ambition

  Some working class girls' ambitions still continue to be gender-stereotyped. Reay argues that this reflects the reality of girls' class position- limited aspirations reflect limited job opportunities they perceive as being available to them. The traditional gender identity (especially being part of a couple) is attainable and offers status.

  Biggart found that working class girls are more likely to face an unsecure job position in the labour market, motherhood is then seen as the only viable option so they see less point achieving in education.
• Equal Opportunity Policies

  Policymakers are now more aware of gender issues, and teachers are more sensitive to avoid gender stereotyping as equal opportunities are now a part of mainstream thinking- influencing educational policy. GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue careers in non-traditional fields- with female scientists visiting the schools and acting as role models. Non-sexist careers advice has been offered so girls' interests are heard.

  Introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988.
• GCSE and Coursework

  Mitos and Browne support the view that boys are disadvantaged by coursework as girls are more conscientious and organised- they spend more time on their work and are better at meeting deadlines. This has helped girls to benefit girls- additionally, greater use of oral exams help due to girls generally having better developed language skills. This is due to their role socialisation in the family (being neat and patient) then brings advantages in today's assessment system.
• Teacher Attention

  French analysed classroom interaction, finding boys received more attention as they were disciplined more harshly, they felt picked on by teachers due to their low expectations of them.
• Teacher Attention

  Swann found gender differences in communication styles; boys would dominate whole-class discussions, where girls preferred pair or group work. This then makes them better at listening and cooperating; their speech involves turn-taking not hostile interruptions. Explaining why teachers respond more positively to girls- seeing them as cooperative, boys as disruptive- then causes the SFP.
• Challenging Stereotypes in the Curriculum

  Weiner argues that since the 80s, teachers have challenged stereotypes in textbooks that are seen as barriers to girls' achievement, portraying women as mainly housewives- in general, sexist images have been removed from learning materials which has helped to raise girls' achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women are capable of.
• Selection and League Tables

  Marketisation policies have created more competition, schools see girls as more desirable as they achieve better exam results. Jackson notes that this introduction has improved opportunities for girls, as they are now more attractive in admissions processes. This creates the SFP as they are then able to access better quality schools.

  Boys may be seen as 'liability students'- obstacles for the school in improving their league table position, giving the school a 'rough' image and deterring girls' from applying.
• View of Girls' Achievement

  Liberal feminists celebrate the progress made in improving achievement; they believe further progress will be made through continuing equal opportunity policies, encouraging positive role models, and overcoming sexist attitudes. This would then make education more in line with the Functionalist view of meritocracy- as all members have the equal opportunity to achieve.
• View of Girls' Achievement

  Radical feminists take a more critical view, recognising that girls are achieving more but emphasise that the education system still remains patriarchal: sexual harassment of girls continues, education still limits girls' subject choices and career options, there are more male headteachers in secondary schools, women are underrepresented in many areas of the curriculum (Weiner: describes secondary history curriculum as a 'woman-free zone').
• Symbolic Capital

  Feminists like Archer et al claim that one reason why working class girls aren't successful is conflicts between the working class girls' feminine identities, and the values and ethos of the school. The concept of 'symbolic capital' refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth we can obtain from others. It was found w/c girls gained this from their peers but this caused conflict with the school, preventing them from acquiring educational and economic capital.
• Hyper-Heterosexual Feminine Identities

  Archer et al found many girls invested considerable amounts of energy into constructing this desirable identity- combining Black urban American styles with unisex sportswear. This performance brought status from their female peer group, and avoided them being ridiculed for wearing the wrong brand. Though the school punished them for having the wrong appearance, they saw this as a preoccupation which distracted them from engaging in education- as the school see the 'ideal pupil' as de-sexualised.
• Boyfriends

  Archer et al

  While having boyfriends brought symbolic capital, it prevented them from spending time on schoolwork and lowered their aspirations- many lost interest in attending university, and didn't want to study 'masculine' subjects or gain a professional career. Instead, they aspired to 'settle down', have children, and work locally in working class feminine jobs like childcare.
• Being 'Loud'

  Archer et al

  Some working class girls adopted 'loud' feminine identities which often led them to being outspoken, independent and assertive- like questioning the authority of a teacher. Failure to conform to the schools' stereotype of an 'ideal pupil' (passive and submissive) brought conflict. Teachers interpreted the behaviour as aggressive, not assertive.
• Working Class Girls' Dilemma

  They either gain symbolic capital from their peers through conforming to hyper-heterosexual feminine identities; or gain educational capital by rejecting their working class identity and conforming to the schools' middle class notions. Some tried to cope by defining themselves as 'good underneath'- this then reflects the struggle to achieve self-worth within an education system that devalues their working class identities.
• 'Successful' Working Class Girls

  Evans studied of 21 working class 6th Form girls in a comprehensive South London school; found that girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power, but for their family not themselves- 'caring' is a crucial element of their w/c identity. Economic necessity made them remain at home due to high transport costs. Living at home made HE more affordable- but limited their choice and market value of their degree.

  Archer et al claims that preference for locality is a key feature of the w/c habitus- causing self-exclusion from elite universities.
• Boys and Literacy

  DCSF sees the gender gap as mainly a result of boys' poorer literacy and language skills. Due to parents spending less time reading with their sons, and that mothers tend to do the majority of reading- making it seem like a feminine activity. Boys leisure pursuits (football) don't leave them as prepared as girls' 'bedroom culture'. To respond to this disadvantage, the government has introduced policies like 'The Raising Boys Achievement Project' which includes single-sex teaching.
• Globalisation and the Decline of Traditional Mens' Jobs

  Since 80s, globalisation has caused a significant decline in heavy industries as they have relocated due to cheaper labour. Traditionally, these sectors mainly employed men. Mitos and Browne argue that this has lead to an 'identity crisis' for men; many boys believe they have little future prospects which undermines their motivation and self-esteem.
• Feminisation of Education

  Sewell claims that boys fall behind as education has become 'feminised'- schools don't nurture masculine traits like competitiveness and leadership; they celebrate more feminine qualities like methodical working and attentiveness. Sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences; arguing it should be replaced with some final exams, or a greater emphasis on outdoor adventure in the curriculum.
• Shortage of Male Primary School Teachers

  Yougov claim that 14% of primary school teachers are male, and 39% of 8 to 11 year-olds have no lessons with male teachers at all. Most boys said that being in the presence of a male teacher would make them work harder. In a feminised environment, many female teachers are said to not be able to control boys' behaviour- seeing male teachers as better able to impose a strict discipline needed for boys concentration.
• Are More Male Teachers Needed?

  Francis found that 2/3s of 7 to 8 year-old said the gender of the teacher doesn't matter.

  Read studied the type of language teachers used to express criticism or disapproval- found 2 types of discourse: Disciplinarian discourse- authority is made visible and explicit (shouting or sarcasm); and Liberal discourse- teacher's authority is implicit, involving 'pseudo-adultification'. DD associated with masculinity and LD femininity; but study revealed most teachers used DD. Showing female teachers are just as capable.
• Laddish Subcultures

  Epstein found that w/c boys are likely to be harassed, labelled or subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they appear to be trying to succeed in education. This label is more of a threat to males due to the working class culture valuing masculinity through being tough and doing manual work. Non-manual work (like schoolwork) is seen as effeminate and inferior.

  Francis argues that this culture is getting more widespread the more girls move to more masculine areas of work- boys respond by acting 'increasingly laddish' to construct themselves as non-feminine.
• The Moral Panic About Boys

  Feminist, Ringrose, claims that views of equal opportunity policies only benefitting girls has caused a moral panic about 'failing boys'- reflecting a fear that the underachieving w/c boys will grow up to be an unemployable underclass who threaten social stability. Claiming this has shifted educational policy from equality to preoccupation on raising boys' achievement. Caused 2 negative effects: making it purely 'boys' ignores those failing as part of an ethnic group, and it ignores the other problems faced by girls in school (sexual harassment, bullying).
• Gender Role Socialisation

  The process of learning behaviours expected of males and females in society. Early socialisation shapes children's gender identity- through clothes, toys and encouraged activities. Murphy and Elwood then claim that they develop different tastes in reading which is why subject choice differs. Girls read stories about people, so prefer English; and boys read hobby books, explaining why they prefer science.
• Gender Role Socialisation- Gender Domains

  Browne and Ross argue children's beliefs in 'gender domains' (the tasks and activities they see as in their 'territory') are shaped by early experiences and expectations of adults. Children are more confident when engaging in tasks in their gender domain.

  Murphy found that girls and boys pay attention to different details when tackling the same task- girls focus on feelings (humanities/art subjects), and boys on how things are constructed (STEM).
• Gendered Subject Images

  Gender image of a subject affects who chooses it; Kelly argues that science is seen as a male subject as teachers are more likely to be male, the examples in textbooks draw on male interests, and boys monopolise lessons with apparatus. Colley notes ICT is seen as a masculine subject due to it involving working with machines- part of male gender domain, teaching is more abstract tasks which limits group work (which girls' prefer).
• Gendered Subject Images: Single-Sex Schooling

  Pupils who attend these schools hold less gendered stereotypes over subjects. Leonard found that girls were more likely to take maths and science at A-Level than in mixed schools; and boys were more likely to take English and languages. Additionally, girls were then more likely to study male-dominated subjects at university. This is because they can freely select subjects without judgement for 'breaking' gender domains.
• Gender Identity and Peer Pressure

  Other students may pressure an individual, if they disprove of their choice. Paechter found that pupils see sport as in the male gender domain, girls who are 'sporty' then contradict this image- this could explain why there are fewer female students. Deware found male students would call girls 'lesbian' if they were interested in sports.

  The Institute of Physics found it was off-putting for girls; peers police each other so they adopt an appropriate gender identity.
• Gendered Career Opportunities

  Employment is highly gendered; jobs tend to be sex-typed as men's or women's. Women's jobs involve: housewife, childcare, nursing. Over half of women's employment falls within: clerical, secretarial, personal service and occupations such as cleaning. The sex-typing then impacts what jobs are seen as respectable. Boys learn that most nurses are female, so are less likely to opt for a career in childcare- this explains why vocational courses are more gender-specific than academic courses, they are closer linked to career plans.
• Gender, Vocational Choice and Class

  There are social class differences in the choice of vocational subjects. Working class students make these decisions based on their sense of gender identity. Most of the working class girls in Fuller's study had ambitions to work in childcare or hair & beauty as it reflected their working class habitus- their realistic expectation of 'people like us'. These ambitions may arise from work experience placements being gendered and classed- schools implicitly steering girls to placements in retail or nursing.
• Pupils' Sexual and Gender Identities

  The ways in which pupils' experiences in school help to construct and reinforce their gender and sexual identities. These experiences all help to reinforce 'hegemonic masculinity' (Connell)- the dominance of heterosexual masculine identity, and the subordination of female and gay identities.
• Double Standards

  When we apply one set of moral standards to one group, but a different set to another. Lees identified that there are double standards of sexual morality- where boys boast about their sexual exploits, but a girl is called a 'slag' if she doesn't have a steady boyfriend. Sexual conquest is given status by male peers and ignored by teachers; but 'promiscuity' among females attracts negative labels. Feminists see this as an example of the patriarchal ideology- a form of social control that reinforces gender inequality through female subordination.
• Verbal Abuse

  Connell claims this is how the dominant gender and sexual identities are reinforced; by name-calling. Lees found that boys called girls 'slags' if they appeared to be sexually available, and 'drags' if not. Paechter sees this as helping to shape gender identity and maintain male power. Negative labels like 'gay or queer' are ways in which pupils police each other's sexual identities and reinforce gender norms.
• The Male Gaze

  Visual aspect to pupils controlling each other's identities. Mac an Ghaill refers to the male gaze- the way male pupils and teachers look girls up and down, seeing them as sexual objects, and making judgements about their appearance. Seeing it as a form of surveillance where dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced, and femininity devalued. A way that boys prove their masculinity to their friends, retelling sexual conquests- if not, they risk being (-) labelled.
• Male Peer Groups

  Use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity. Mac an Ghaill's study examined that peer groups reproduce a range of class-based masculine identities. W/c 'Macho lads' were dismissive of w/c boys who aspired to have m/c careers. M/c 'real Englishmen' projected an image of effortless achievement. The dominant definition of masculinity shifts from 'macho lads' in lower school, to 'real Englishmen' in 6th Form. This mirrors the shift to m/c atmosphere, based on intellectual ability.